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December 2006
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Research in BriefLooking Back, the Impact of the 4-H Camp Counselor Experience on Youth Development: A Survey of Counselor AlumniJeanne Brandt Mary E. Arnold Oregon State University IntroductionUnderstanding the long-term impact of 4-H programs on youth is a perennial issue. We know that much of the work of positive youth development plants the seeds for the future success of the youth with whom we work. We are often left, however, wondering how we can capture the impact of 4-H as youth move into their 20s, 30s, and beyond. All of us have heard stories about the benefit of 4-H from former 4-H members who are now actively involved in their adult lives. But we rarely have taken the time to study some of those long-term effects in a systematic way. The purpose of the study reported here was to examine the long-term impact of participation as a 4-H residential camp counselor. To date, no research about the long-term impacts of participating in an organized camp counselor program has been published. Every summer, thousands of young people across the country participate in 4-H summer residential camping programs intended to introduce appreciation of natural resources and to promote life skills development. These campers are often supervised by trained, high-school aged counselors (Roark, 2000; Thomas, 1996). There is considerable recent evidence about the impact of residential camp on life and other skills gained by both campers and counselors (American Camping Association, 2005; Arnold, Bourdeau, & Nagele, 2005; Forsythe, Matysik, & Nelson, 2004; Garst & Bruce, 2003; Hines & Riley, 2005; Hoell, 2003; LaFave & Buck, 2001; Nagele, Bourdeau, & Arnold, 2005; Meier & Mitchell, 1993). None of these studies, however, measured the lasting impact of participating in camp, particularly on camp counselors. Teen 4-H camp counselors play out their role in that interesting place between childhood and adulthood. No longer are they the little ones looking up to their counselor. Instead, as camp counselors, they take on a pseudo-adult role and experience many of the rights and responsibilities of being an adult. Developmental psychologist James Marcia (1987) emphasized the importance of youth "trying on" different roles rather than foreclosing too soon on an identity or career path. Doing so helps encourage the development of broad skills and interests that can be applied in a variety of settings in adult life. It makes sense, then, that the camp counselor experience could have a major impact on teens as they try on, practice, and develop important adult roles. In the summer of 2004, Oregon conducted a study to assess the lasting effect of the experience on those who participated as counselors at summer 4-H residential camps. The goal of the study was to explore how the counselor alumni felt about the impact of the experience as they enter their adult lives. MethodsParticipants and ProceduresParticipants for this study were 205 camp counselor alumni from 10 Oregon counties who had participated as a camp counselor in one or more of five residential 4-H camps offered in Oregon during the past 20 years. Questionnaires were sent via mail, with follow-up reminder post cards sent 2 weeks later to increase response rate (Dillman, 1999). Surveys were returned by 83 people, for a 40% return rate. The age range of the study participants was 19 to 39 years, with a mean age of 24. Twenty-one participants were male (25%), and 62 were female (75%). This ratio is consistent with the typical gender distribution of camp counselors and older teens in the 4-H program as a whole. InstrumentsA questionnaire was developed specifically for the study. In addition to basic demographic information, the questionnaire focused on three areas of impact: 1) personal experience as a camp counselor; 2) the development of skills for working effectively with children and groups; and 3) the development of selected life skills as outlined by Hendricks (1996). There were five items related to personal experience, nine related to the development of skills for working with children, and 15 life skill items. Participants were asked to rate each item on a one to five scale. Questionnaire items, including the selection of specific life skills from the Targeting Life Skills Model (Hendricks, 1996), were developed by a team of 4-H professionals with expertise in camp counselor training. The items were then shared with other experts in the field to determine the final selection of questionnaire items. This process led to confidence in the content validity of the items, meaning that the experts felt that the selected items sufficiently represented the personal experiences typically encountered as a camp counselor and the domain of skills needed to work effectively with children and groups (Carmines & Zeller, 1991). Internal reliability for each of the three areas of impact was assessed using Cronbach's Alpha (Cronbach, 1971). Reliability coefficients for the three areas were: .71 (personal experience), .91 (skills for working effectively with children and groups), and .96 (life skills). ResultsTo measure the impact of being a camp counselor on personal experience, respondents were asked to rate each item on a one to five scale, with a one indicating "not true at all" and a five indicating "extremely true." Participant ratings ranged from a high of 4.13 (being a camp counselor helped me develop self-confidence) to a low of 2.62 (considering a career with children as a result of being a camp counselor). Table 1 lists the range and mean scores for each personal development item.
A second set of questions asked participants to rate how much being a 4-H camp counselor helped the person to develop skills related to working with young children. Participants were asked to rate on a one to five scale how much being a camp counselor helped them to develop each skill item. A score of one indicated that being a camp counselor did not help develop that skill "at all." A score of five indicated that it "really helped." Mean ratings ranged from a low of 3.37 (developed knowledge of child development) to 4.46 (being a role model for others). Table 2 presents the range and mean scores for each item.
The third set of questionnaire items were drawn from the Targeting Life Skills Model (Hendricks, 1996). Items from the model have been used to define the types of skills typically promoted through participation in the 4-H program. The model emphasizes the balanced development of particular life skills centered in each of the 4 "H's": Head, Heart, Hands, and Health. Figure 1 shows how the life skills developed through participation as a camp counselor reflects this balance.
Participants were asked to rate on a one to five scale how much being a camp counselor helped them to develop each life skill item. A score of one indicated that being a camp counselor did not help develop that skill "at all." A score of five indicated that the it "really helped." Table 3 presents the range and mean scores for each item.
Because one of the goals of the study was to investigate the long-term impact of participation as a 4-H camp counselor on skills for working with children and groups, and life skill development, further analysis was conducted to examine potential differences in impact over time. To do this, respondents were placed into two groups based on age. The first group contained those age 18 to 23 (roughly college-aged; n = 45). The second group contained the respondents who were 24 or older (post-college and presumably more settled into adult life; n = 39). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted between groups to identify between-group differences in mean ratings of skills for working with children and groups and life skill development. Eleven significant differences were found, and in all cases the ratings of the 24 and older group were higher. Table 4 presents results of the ANOVA of skills for working with children, and Table 5 presents the results for life skill development.
Conclusions and ImplicationsBased on the responses received in this study, involvement in a camp counselor program does indeed appear to have a long-term, positive impact on the lives of participants. With regards to personal development, alumni self-reported that being a camp counselor contributed more to the development of self-confidence and transferable skills. Ratings of the impact of being a counselor on a career with children were lower, leading us to conclude that being a counselor may not have a strong impact on career choice, at least in terms of a career working with children. What the experience does appear to do, however, is provide a setting for exploring opportunities, trying on new roles, and learning skills that are useful in other settings. This is consistent with Marcia's (1987) factors that lead to healthy identity development. A camp counselor experience involves working with children and groups in a variety of settings and situations. When asked about related skills, the ability to lead groups, how to be a role model for others, and how to encourage and support others received the highest ratings. Noticeably lower ratings were given in the areas of knowledge of child development and how to handle emergency situations. Because we know that child development and emergency situation information is provided at the pre-service training given to all counselors, it could be that these two items were simply less prevalent in the experience of camp counselors. For example, emergency situations occur far less frequently than other daily camp activities, and counselors may not be aware of how they are using their knowledge of child development information in their camp activities. Additionally, because this is a retrospective look, it could be that these are not areas that had a significant impact on the counselor's memory of the experience. Nonetheless, given the importance of these items, the results also call for re-evaluating the pre-service trainings to be sure counselors have sufficient knowledge and readiness in both of these areas. The highest ratings for life skill development were for the four skills that fall under the "hands" section of the Targeting Life Skills model: leadership, responsible citizenship, contribution, and teamwork. Given the "hands-on" nature of being a camp counselor and the need for counselors to be leaders, demonstrate responsibility, contribute and be a team, this is not surprising. What this is confirming is the fact that the counselors who participated in this study continue to see these skills as the primary things they learned long after camp ended. Other skills that alumni rated highly were communicating, resolving conflict, and problem solving. Again, given the context of the counselor's role at camp, the higher rating of these skills makes sense. The results of the ANOVA between the college age and older groups also revealed some interesting findings. For the items related to working with children and groups, significant differences were found for learning how to teach others, how to teach groups, and encouraging and supporting others. For the life skill items, significant differences were found for developing empathy, nurturing relationships, contributing to a group effort, teamwork, self-esteem, and character development. While much more research needs to be done on the nature of these differences before any conclusion can be drawn, one possible reason could be that the older group has now entered a stage of life (career, marriage, family) where these skills are increasingly necessary and therefore seen as more valuable. Finally, comments written by the respondents frequently alluded to the bonding and friendships developed among the camp counselor group as being a source of great satisfaction. They understood the significance of their role and had knowledge of the impact they were making on the youth in their care. It appears that being a 4-H camp counselor is a rewarding and meaningful experience that has a lasting, important impact. ReferencesAmerican Camping Association (2005). Directions: Youth development outcomes of the camp experience. Martinsville, IN: ACA. Arnold, M. E., Bourdeau, V. D., & Nagele, J. (2005). Fun and friendship in the natural world: The impact of Oregon 4-H residential camping programs on girl and boy campers. Journal of Extension [On-Line], 43(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005december/rb1.shtml Forsythe, K., Matysik, R., & Nelson, K. (2004). Impact of the 4-H camp counseling experience. Department of Youth Development, University of Wisconsin: Madison. Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R.A. (1991). Reliability and validity assessment. Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Cronbach, L. J. (1971). Test validation. In R. L. Thorndike (Ed.) Educational measurement (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: American Council on Education Dillman, D. A. (1999). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. Garst, B. A., & Bruce, F. A. (2003). Identifying 4-H camping outcomes using a standardized evaluation process across multiple 4-H educational centers. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003june/rb2.shtml Hines, S., & Riley, L. (2005). Documenting impact is possible when working with camp program youth leaders. Journal of Extension [On-line], 43(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005june/tt1.shtml Hendricks, P. A. (1996). Developing youth curriculum using the Targeting Life Skills Model. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension. Hoell, K. (2003). Camp counselors gain real-world experience. Camping Magazine, 76(1), 72. LaFave, R., & Buck, S. (2001). Training camp counselors as leaders. Camping Magazine. 74(2), 36-40. Marcia, J. (1987). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley. Meier, J. F., & Mitchell, A. V. (2003). Camp counseling leadership and programming for the organized camp (7th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Nagele, J., Bourdeau, V. D., & Arnold, M. E. (2005). Do you know what your outcomes are? Camping Magazine, 78(5), 46-51. Roark, M. (2000).Counselor motivations for choosing summer resident camp employment. Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Administration, Western Illinois University: Macomb, IL. Thomas, H. (1996). Youth leadership: Teaching essential proficiencies at camp. Camping Magazine, 68 (4), 25-28.
Exploring the Adolescent Life Skill Outcomes of State 4-H Congress Participation and the Different Outcomes of Gender and Race GroupsBarry A. Garst Joseph R. Hunnings Kathleen Jamison Jewel Hairston Robert R. Meadows Wendy R. Herdman IntroductionAlthough 4-H youth development programs are designed for youth ages 5-19, 4-H programs that involve teenagers may be particularly important for teaching leadership, citizenship, and life skills. Research suggests that the experiences that young people have during early adolescence provide the foundation on which they develop their personalities (Leffert, Saito, Blyth, & Kroenke, 1996). Transforming adolescence from a stagnant period of life into a period of positive development often requires young people to adopt a new way of thinking and a new way of viewing the world. Unfortunately, many teenagers are not exposed to situations and environments that allow them to challenge their assumptions. Kielsmeier (1988) suggests that "instead of moving steadily to full adult responsibilities, many young adults are caught in an isolated, relatively unproductive period of life where little is expected of them except to prepare for the next, more useful stage." Residential 4-H programs may be communities in which such a transformation can occur. Research suggests that residential programs and events may be particularly suited to affect youth participants in positive ways (Garst, Schneider, & Baker, 2001; Kielsmeier, 1988; Larzelere, Dinges, Schmidt, Spellman, Criste, & Connell, 2001). Residential programs and events, particularly those located outside of a participant's resident county/city, such as 4-H camp, state 4-H Congress and conferences, and national 4-H Congress and conferences, remove youth from their home communities and expose them to unique learning environments. In these novel contexts, youth may be more likely to "be themselves" and to explore new ways of thinking and behaving without the social constraints that might be present in their homes, schools, and communities (Garst & Johnson, 2005). Many studies of the life skills outcomes of 4-H youth development have been conducted over the past several years (e.g., Fitzpatrick, Gagne, Jones, Lobley, & Phelps, 2005; Seevers & Dormody, 1995). These studies examined the life skill outcomes of specific 4-H delivery modes, including: 4-H clubs (Astroth, 1996; Cantrell, Heinsohn, & Doebler, 1989; Fox, Schroeder, & Lodl, 2003), 4-H camps (Ellerbusch, Calkins, & Schwarz, 2005; Forsythe, K., Matysik, R., & Nelson, K., 2004; Garst & Bruce, 2001; Loeser, Bailey, Benson, & Deen, 2004), and 4-H youth leadership retreats (Arnold, 2003). Although several states conduct 1-week residential 4-H events that serve as the culmination of county/city and district 4-H competitions, few published studies have reported on the life-skill outcomes of this type of event. One exception was Stafford, Boyd, and Lindner's (2003) study of the Texas 4-H Roundup, in which the researchers explored whether or not a reflection component of a service learning experience offered during the Roundup influenced leadership life skills development. Research QuestionsBecause few studies have reported on the life skill outcomes of a 1-week residential 4-H event such as State 4-H Congress, the study reported here sought to better describe the potential impacts of this type of program. The first objective of the study was to identify the short-term life skills outcomes of State 4-H Congress participation. The second objective was to identify whether or not differences existed in the life skill outcomes reported by racial groups (White and African-American participants) and gender groups (male and female participants). Program DescriptionVirginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) conducts a 4-day residential 4-H event called "State 4-H Congress." State 4-H Congress is available to male and female youth ages 14-18. Although many Congress participants are senior 4-H members, 4-H membership is not a requirement of participation. County/city level 4-H Extension Agents determine the participation criteria for the youth in their unit. Some agents require youth to participate or compete in 4-H related projects and programs in order to qualify to attend Congress. Other agents use Congress as a mechanism or "hook" to involve new youth into the 4-H program or to expose youth to new and novel environments and settings outside of their own communities. This reflects one of the essential elements of positive youth development settings--that youth are given the opportunity to develop a sense of hope in the future by being exposed to new environments and opportunities for learning (University of Arizona Institute for Children, Youth, and Families, 2003). The current mission of State 4-H Congress is to provide competitive and non-competitive educational experiences to Virginia teens and the adults who work with them, helping them to develop leadership and life skills towards becoming contributing citizens in their communities. Table 1 describes the major components of State 4-H Congress, including State 4-H Competitions, Great Summer Showcase Workshops, Service Learning, Youth Issues Forum, Leadership Institute, Congressional Games, and 4-H All Star Tapping and Recognition.
One of the most important goals of the State 4-H Congress is to develop participant life skills. These life skills are conceptually located within the Head, Heart, Hands, and Health domains (Table 1). The life skills targeted (Hendricks, 1996) by Virginia's State 4-H Congress include:
Participants and MethodsParticipants in the study were youth ages 14-18 who completed a 4-day State 4-H Congress event conducted at Virginia Tech in June of 2004. All delegates were asked to complete a questionnaire on the last day of Congress. Questionnaires included questions related to program component ratings, life skills outcomes, and demographics. The life skills items were developed internally by state-level 4-H youth development specialists based upon the targeted life skills. Thus, evaluation for State 4-H Congress was a purposeful process whereby planning for evaluation occurred at the same time that the programs' targeted outcomes were identified. The pre-test portion of the questionnaire had a Cronbach's alpha of .89, and the post-test had a Cronbach's alpha of .92. A retrospective pre-test (RPT) and post-test approach was used to examine life skills changes. With this approach, participants were first asked about their level of life skills after Congress participation and then they were asked to think back to their level of life skills before participating in Congress. RPT has been widely used in program evaluation across multiple disciplines. In addition to saving time and being more enjoyable to participants (they only have to complete one questionnaire), RPT also helps to avoid a response-shift effect (Howard, 1980), whereby a respondent's frame of reference or evaluation standard changes during participation in the program. ResultsParticipant DemographicsA total of 530 male and female youth ages 14-18 completed the 4-day State 4-H Congress. Of these participants, a sample of 245 youth completed an end-of-the-week questionnaire for a response rate of 46%. Sixty-two percent were first-time participants. Sixty-three percent were female. The most prominent ethnic groups were White (64%) and African American (10%). The mean age was 16 years old. Life Skill OutcomesTen items on the questionnaire asked Congress participants to identify the degree to which participation in State 4-H Congress helped them to acquire life skills. Comparisons were made between each of the "before Congress" and "after Congress" means using paired t-tests (Table 2). While significant differences were found (p<.05) between all of the "before Congress" and "after Congress" means, the greatest gains were found with the following items:
Life Skills Comparisons of Demographic GroupsThe life skill gains of White delegates and African-American delegates were compared (Table 3). Both White and African-American delegates indicated that life skills gains were achieved in three of the same life skills areas (Table 3). However, African-American delegates indicated greater gains for the item, "demonstrate the skills of a good leader" (0.39) than White delegates (0.24). A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine if there were significant differences between White and African-American delegates and reported life skill development as a result of Congress participation. Significant differences (p<.05) were not found for any item.
The life skill gains of male delegates and female delegates were also compared (Table 4). Both male and female delegates indicated that significant life skills gains were achieved related to "identify needs in my community and work to meet those needs." However, there were several differences. Male delegates identified gains in the areas of "clearly state my thoughts, feelings, ideas to others" and "use my time wisely," and these gains were greater than the gains in the same items for females. Female delegates identified gains in the areas of "think critically about my future and set goals for my future" and "have friendships with people who are different from me," and these gains were greater than the gains in the same items for males. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine if there were significant differences between male and female delegates and reported life skill development as a result of Congress participation. Significant gender differences (p<.05) were not found for any items (Table 4).
ConclusionsThe results of the evaluation suggest that State 4-H Congress participation enhanced the life skills of teen delegates. Although these results support the value of State 4-H Congress, they also support the importance of purposeful programming. The greatest life skills gains (Table 2) appear to be related to the programmatic components of Congress (e.g., Great Summer Showcase Workshops Service Learning, Youth Issues Forum, Leadership Institute) that were specifically selected to target identified life skills. For example, the emphasis on service learning experiences at Congress may have influenced the gains in the life skill "identify needs in [my] community and work to meet those needs." Likewise, the exposure to educational experiences in novel environments may have influenced gains in the life skill, "think critically about [my] future and set goals for [my] future." Finally, the opportunities that Congress provided for delegates to interact with other youth from across the state in a wide variety of educational and social situations may have influenced the life skills gains related to, "have friendships with people who are different from [me]." The results of the study failed to show a significant difference between the life skills gains according to race and gender. The lack of significant differences between males and females may contradict Stafford, Boyd, and Lindner's (2003) study of life skill development through community service, where females reported themselves as having more effective team skills than males. In the study reported here, male and female delegates were engaged in a community-service type experience during Congress, yet such differences were not found. This suggests that the Virginia State 4-H Congress was equally effective for enhancing the life skills of all delegates regardless of race and gender. ImplicationsThe study supports the important role that residential 4-H programs such as State 4-H Congress may play in the development of life skills towards positive youth development. Although many Congress-style programs and events emphasize activities such as 4-H competitions, it is important to recognize the related life skill development that these programs and events foster. In an environment of increasing accountability, research projects that identify program outcomes are critical. Although many states conduct Congress-style programs and events, they may not have a purposeful evaluation process established to evaluate whether or not desired outcomes are achieved. These results remind us of the importance of being purposeful in our Extension efforts. ReferencesArnold, M. E. (2003). Using a multi-site methodology to evaluate 4-H youth leadership retreats. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003december/rb1.shtml Astroth, K. (1996). Leadership in non-formal youth groups. Does style affect youth outcomes. Journal of Extension [On-line], 34(6), Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/rb2.html Cantrell, J., Heinsohn, A. L., & Doebler, M. K. (1989). Is it worth the costs? Journal of Extension [On-line], 27(1). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1989spring/a4.html Ellerbusch, K. M., Calkins, C. F., & Schwarz, J. (2005). An evaluation of the effectiveness of life skill development in Missouri's 4-H youth resident summer camps. University of Missouri Extension. Fitzpatrick, C., Gagne, K. H., Jones, R. Lobley, J., & Phelps, L. (2005) Life skills development in youth: Impact research in action. Journal of Extension [On-line] 43(3) Article 3RIB1. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005june/rb1.shtml Forsythe, K., Matysik, R., & Nelson, K. (2004). Impact of the 4-H camp counseling experience. Research Paper. Department of Youth Development. University of Wisconsin-Extension. Fox. J., Schroeder, D., & Lodl, K. (2003). Life skill development through 4-H clubs: The perspective of 4-H alumni. Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003december/rb2.shtml Garst, B. A. & Johnson, J. (2005). Adolescent leadership skill development through residential 4-H camp counseling. Journal of Extension [On-line], (43)5 Article 5RIB5. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005october/rb5.shtml Garst, B. A., Schneider, I. E., & Baker, D. A. (2001). The impact of the outdoor adventure experience on adolescent self-perception. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(1) 41-49. Hendricks, P. (1996). Targeting life skills model: Incorporating developmentally appropriate learning opportunities to assess impact of life skills development. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Howard, G.S. (1980). Response-shift bias: A problem in evaluating interventions with pre/post self reports. Evaluation Review, 4(1), 93-106. Kielsmeier, J. (1988). Outdoor centers and camps: A 'natural' location for youth leadership development. ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools Digest. Las Cruces, NM. Retrieved on December 1, 2005 from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed296811.html Larzelere R. E.; Dinges K.; Schmidt M. D.; Spellman D. F.; Criste T. R.; Connell P. (2001). Outcomes of residential treatment: A study of the adolescent clients of girls and boys town. Child and Youth Care Forum, 30(3), 175-185(11). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York. Leffert, N., Saito, R. N., Blyth, D. A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the Case: Measuring the Impact of Youth Development Programs. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute. Loeser, D. M., Bailey, S. J., Benson, R. L., & Deen, M. Y. (2004). Measuring impacts with young audiences: Adapting a life-skills Instrument for Use with third- to fifth-grade youth. Journal of Extension [On-line], 42(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2004august/rb1.shtml National 4-H Impact Assessment Project (2001). Prepared and engaged youth: National 4-H impact assessment project. USDA, CSREES, Washington, D.C. Seevers, B. S. & Dormody, T. J. (1995). Leadership life skills development: Perceptions of senior 4-H youth. Journal of Extension [On-line], 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/ent.html#rb1 Stafford, J., Boyd B., & Lindner, J. R. (2003). Community service versus service-learning: Which is best for 4-H? Journal of Extension [On-line], 41(6). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2003december/a1.shtml University of Arizona Institute for Children, Youth, and Families. (2003). National 4-H impact assessment project: Prepared and engaged youth serving American communities. Tucson, AZ: Author.
Attitudes of 4-H Participants About 4-H Competitive EventsRama B. Radhakrishna Lydia Everhart Megan Sinasky Department of Agricultural and Extension Education IntroductionEach year thousands of 4-H members from across the United States prepare and participate in competitive events. In addition to getting 4-H members prepared for competitive events, some parents travel to lend moral support to their children at various competitive events. Similarly, Extension educators, volunteers, and other 4-H personnel provide time and expertise to ensure that the events are conducted in a fair and ethical manner. Competition as a youth educational experience involves an array of stakeholders--educators, volunteers, parents, youth educators, teachers, administrators, and youth themselves (Radhakrishna, Everhart, & Sinasky, 2005). According to the National USDA/ES Task Force Report (1989), competition has been accepted as an appropriate teaching-learning strategy by many youth organizations, and 4-H is no exception. The use and value of competitions in 4-H date back to agricultural clubs and contests created around the beginning of the 20th century (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). The 4-H program has used competitive events and activities as a means to promote learning and the development of specific skills of 4-H members (Ladewig & Thomas, 1987). Several researchers have indicated that one of the most important goals of 4-H has been to provide educational opportunities for youth through competitive activities (Kieth & Vaughn, 1998; Weber & McCullers, 1986; & 4-H Leader, 1986). Competition is the process of comparing skills (Midura & Glover, 1999). Midura and Glover identified three main types of competitions: the military model, the reward model, and the partnership model. In the military model, players are expected to see the other team as the "enemy," whereas in the reward model, team members compete for the rewards of winning a game. The partnership model differs from the other two models in that the players are not expected to view their opponents as the enemy (Midura & Glover, 1999). As with other social-emotional issues, children understand competition differently depending on their developmental stage (Perkins, 2000). A number of studies (Fetsch & Yang, 2002; Keith & Vaughn, 1998; Ladewig & Thomas, 1987; Wessel & Wessel, 1982; Weber & McCullers, 1986; & 4-H Leader, 1986) have been conducted relative to competitive events and activities. Consensus from these studies suggests both positive and negative influence of competitions on young people's development. Examples of positives include: helping young people to learn democratic values, greater academic success, and appreciation for personal health and physical fitness. In addition, studies have also shown that competition helps to decrease juvenile delinquency, foster responsible social behavior, stimulate creativity, motivate young people to set goals, and prepare them for the competitive world. On the other hand, opponents of competitions argue that competition decreases self esteem and fosters individualism, and that it encourages counter-productive activities, unbalanced skill development, false judgments about individuals, cheating and unfair practices, aggressive behavior of participants, poor sportsmanship, improper parental attitudes, and individualism rather than cooperation. Regardless of positive or negative influence of competition to young people's development, competition that is not placed in a proper perspective coupled with sportsmanship and fairness may be detrimental to youth development and self-esteem (Perkins, 2000). Research on competition in 4-H is limited and lacking in psychological or educational concepts (National USDA Task Force, 1989). Researchers (Fetsch & Yang, 2002; Kieth & Vaughn, 1998) have recommended that competitive events should be re-evaluated and modified to mirror changes within the 4-H program, especially how 4-H competitive events and activities are structured and implemented. Purpose and ObjectivesThe overall purpose of the study reported here was to determine attitude of 4-H participants about 4-H competitive events. Specific objectives were to: 1) determine attitude of 4-H participants about 4-H competitive events and 2) determine relationships, if any, between participants' attitude about 4-H competitive events and demographic and program characteristics. MethodologyThe study used a descriptive-correlational design. The population for the study consisted of all youth registered for participation in the 4-H Sate Achievement Days held in August 2004 at University Park campus of The Pennsylvania State University. A survey instrument, appropriate for use at a 4-H event, was developed by the researchers based on a review of related literature. The survey had two sections. Section one contained 29 statements relative to 4-H competitions and activities. The 29 statements were measured on five-point Likert-scale that ranged from 1 "strongly disagree" to 5 "strongly agree." Section two contained demographic and program information. The instrument was assessed for content and face validity by a panel of eight experts consisting of three faculty members with 4-H and youth development responsibilities, two Extension program leaders in family, youth, and children programming, and two former 4-H/Youth Extension agents and one graduate student in the department of Agricultural and Extension Education. The instrument was pilot tested using 4-H collegiate members (N=21). Minor changes were made to the instrument to enhance clarity and readability. Cronbach's alpha, an internal consistency measure, was used to estimate the reliability of the instrument. The reliability for the 29 item instrument was found to be acceptable and very good (alpha=0.91). The study was approved by the university's Institutional Review Board. A cover letter explaining the purpose of the study and informed consent forms (for allowing their child to participate in the survey) were sent to all parents (N=722) of 4-H participants. Only those 4-H participants who had signed consent forms from their parents were allowed to complete the survey. As a result of this procedure, a total of 182 4-Hers completed the survey. Data were analyzed using frequencies, means, percentages, and correlation. The scale provided by Davis (1971) was used to describe relationships between the variables. FindingsDemographic and Program Profile of 4-H participantsA majority of participants were female (71.7%). One-half of the participants were in 11th and 12th grade (50.3%), followed by 10th (21.4%), 9th (19.5%), and 8th (8.8%). More than one-third of the participants indicated they competed as a team (38.7%), followed by individual (31.8%), and team and individual both (29.5%). Almost two-thirds (67.7%) of participants reported that they joined 4-H when they were eight to 10 years old. The percentage of participants who indicated that they had participated in 4-H competitive events in the past year was 62.5%. Of those who participated in previous years (N=113), 74 (65.4%) won ribbons. Forty-four percent of participants indicated that their parents participated in 4-H competitive events when they were young, while 57.5% reported that their parents are current 4-H members. Approximately 64% indicated that their siblings participated in 4-H as well. Parents were identified as most helpful in preparing for competitive events (58.3%), followed by leaders (53.8%), and Extension educators (17.6%). On average, participants spent about 29 hours annually preparing for 4-H competitive events. Objective 1: Perceived Attitude toward 4-H Competitive EventsPerceived attitude about 4-H competitive events was measured using a five-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 "strongly disagree" to 5 "strongly agree." For purposes of presentation, the 29 statements were categorized into "positives" (15 items) and "negatives" (14 items). Tables 1 and 2 present the frequency, mean values, and standard deviations for each statement as well as the overall mean value for both positive and negative statements. As shown in Table 1, 13 of the 15 positive statements had a mean value of 4.0 or higher, indicating agreement. Two items had a mean value closer to 3.5, indicating uncertainty. 4-H participants rated the following statements with the highest agreement: "competition has various benefits and like to compete" (M=4.32, SD=0.65), "competition motivates me to strive for excellence" (M=4.26, SD=0.78), and "competition prepares me for a competitive world" (M=4.24, SD=0.76).However, 4-H participants were uncertain for the statement, "competition enhances family social relationships" (M=3.43, SD=1.07).
Eleven of the 14 negative statements had a mean of 2.5 of less, indicating "disagreement" (Table 2). 4-H participants tended to disagree with most of the negative statements with the exception of two statements. The statement, "competition requires too much help from my parents" was rated high (M=3.74, SD=1.13), followed by the statement, "competition inhibits teamwork" (M=3.17, SD=1.38). However, 4-H participants were "uncertain" to the statement, "there are better ways to educate youth without using competitions" (M=2.66, SD=1.12).
Objective 2: Demographic RelationshipsPoint-biserial correlation coefficients were calculated to describe the relationships between attitudes about 4-H competitive events and select demographic and program variables. Results are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Significant relationships were found between awards won, participation in other competitions, and positive statements about 4-H competitions. However, no relationships existed between gender, grade, and attitude about positive 4-H competition statements (Table 3). Regardless of being a male or female, participants had similar attitudes about positive statements. Similar findings were evident relative to grade level (Table 3). Winning an award was related to positive statements (r=.16, p <.05). Participants who won awards tend to perceive positive statements significantly higher (M=4.11) than those who did not win an award (M=4.03). Moderate, negative relationships (r=-.32, p<.001) were found between positive statements about 4-H competitions and participation in other competitive events. Those who participated in other competitive events tended to perceive positive statements significantly higher (M=4.15) than those who had not participated in other competitions (M=3.85).
Moderate negative relationship, significant at the .01 (r=-.31, p <.01), was found between gender and attitude about negative 4-H competition statements (Table 4). Male participants tended to perceive negative statements significantly higher (M=2.56) than female participants (M=2.05). Participants who did not win an award tended to perceive negative statements significantly higher (M=2.25) than those who won an award (M=2.05). Similarly, those who had not participated in other competitive events tended to perceive negative statements higher (M=2.31) than those who participated in other competitions (M=2.12).
Conclusions and RecommendationsOverall, 4-H participants have positive attitudes about 4-H competitive events, as evidenced by strong agreement for statements that were positive and disagreement for statements that were negative. A closer examination of each statement suggests that 4-H participants believe that 4-H competitive events have benefits. For example, youth perceive competitive events as helping them to learn new things, develop life skills, set goals, and strive for excellence. On the other hand, youth are somewhat concerned about excessive parent involvement, unethical practices, and unhealthy characteristics that are prevalent in current competitive events. Participants indicated that parents and their older siblings, volunteers, and Extension educators were very helpful in preparing them for competitions. Regardless of being male or female, or senior or other grade level, 4-H participants had similar attitudes about positive statements. However, male participants tended to perceive negative statements about competitions much higher than female participants. Prior participation in competitions was related to attitude about competitions. Those who participated tended to place high value on competitions compared to non-participants. Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, three sets of recommendations are offered for 4-H competitive events organizers and programmatic improvement, Extension staff and administrators, and for further research. 4-H competitive events organizers and Extension educators should use the findings of the study reported here to make informed decisions about organizing 4-H competitive events. As a first step, we recommend that organizers involve youth and their parents in planning and organizing 4-H competitive events. Findings of the study should be shared with Extension educators, Extension administration, and 4-H/youth development specialists so that programmatic improvements can be made in terms of 1) selection of competitive events and 2) examination of demographic and program characteristics to determine appropriateness of competitive events depending on age, gender, grade, and development stage of 4-H competitive event participants. Further research should be conducted relative to 4-H competitive events involving general 4-H population or those members who are not as successful (those who drop out or those who fail to join 4-H). Such a study will help in the understanding of different feelings about the value of 4-H competitions. Second, the study should be replicated in other states to see if the attitudes about 4-H competitions are similar or different for all youth in the United States. Third, a common measuring tool should be developed to document outcomes of 4-H competitive events. Such an effort will help to showcase, at the national level, the value of 4-H competitions to all stakeholders. ReferencesAllen, J., lyechad, T., Mayeske, G., Parsons, J., Rodriguez, J., Singh, F., Swiney, K., Tolley, M. J., & Butterfiled, M. (1988a). Competition and youth research based implications/or 4-H. (National 4-H Council, 7100 Connecticut Ave., Chevy Chase, MD 20815) Allen, J., Iyechad, T., Mayeske, G., Parsons, J., Rodriguez, J., Singh, F., Swiney, K., Tolley, M. J., & Butterfiled, M. (1988b). National 4-H competition Task Force Report. (National 4-H Council, 7100 Connecticut Ave., Chevy Chase, MD 20815) Bell, C. C., & Suggs, H. (1998). Using sports to strengthen resiliency in children. Training heart. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 7(4):859-865. Clifford, M. M. (Spring 1989). Competition: Can the assets exceed the liabilities? New Designs in Youth Development. Davis, J. A. (1971). Elementary survey analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 4-H leader, (1987 January). Competition: What's its role? 4-H Leader: The National Magazine for 4-H, 65(1), 12-14. Fetsch, R. J., & Yang, R. K. (2002). The effect of competitive and cooperative learning preferences in children's self-perceptions: A comparison of 4-H and non-4-H members. Journal of Extension [On line],40(3). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002june/a5.html Keith, L., & Vaughn, P. (1998). The value of 4-H competitive activities as perceived by the parents of 4-H members. Journal of Agricultural Education, 39(3), 41-50. Kohn, A. (1992). No contest: A case again competition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Ladewig, H., & Thomas, K .K. (1987). Assessing the impact of 4-H on former members. College Station, TX: Texas A & M University System. Martens, R. (1978). Joy and sadness in children's sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing. National 4-H Competition Task Force (1989). Competition in 4-H: A national USDA/ES task force report. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Midura, D., & Glover, D. (1999). The competition-cooperation link: Games for developing respectful competitions. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing Perkins, D. F. (2000). Putting Youth Back into Sports. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University. Radhakrishna, R. B., Sinasky, M., & Everhart, L. (2005). Educational value of 4-H competitive events as perceived by 4-H participants (Abstract). Proceedings of the National Association of Extension 4-H Agents Conference, 59, 40. Weber, J. A., & McCullers, J. C. (1986). The blue ribbon: An American way of life. The effects of competition and rewards in 4-H. Journal of Extension [On line],24(3). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/1986fall/a1.html Wessel, T., & Wessel, M. (1982). 4-H: An American idea (1900-1980). Chevy Chase, MD: National 4-H Council.
University of Minnesota Horse Owner Survey: Building an Equine Extension ProgramKrishona Martinson Marcia Hathaway Julia H. Wilson Betsy Gilkerson Paul R. Peterson Ron Del Vecchio University of Minnesota IntroductionThe Minnesota horse industry has grown rapidly over the last 5 years. In a recent economic assessment, it was estimated that Minnesota's horse industry generates nearly $1 billion in economic activity annually (Burh, 2004). The 2002 USDA Census of Agriculture indicated there were 14,289 horse and pony farms in Minnesota, up 80% from the 1997 census, and 92,770 horses and ponies, up 75% from 1997 (USDA/NASS, 2002). University of Minnesota Extension Service faculty have been told that Minnesota horse owners would like to have educational programs provided by unbiased and research-based sources. Because little information was available about the specific types of programs desired by horse owners, a survey was needed to document and confirm the need. The objectives of the survey were to:
MethodologyA mail survey of Minnesota horse owners was conducted in the spring of 2004 with assistance from the Minnesota Center for Survey Research (MCSR) and endorsement from the Minnesota Horse Council. The survey was funded by a University of Minnesota Extension Service Agriculture, Food and Environment Capacity Area grant. A draft questionnaire developed by MCSR was based on questions developed by Extension faculty. The draft instrument was presented to three diverse groups of horse owners. Prior to the start of data collection, changes suggested by these three groups were incorporated into the survey to create the final questionnaire. Questionnaires were then sent to a random sample of 1,008 Minnesota horse owners developed from membership lists solicited from 4H, Pony Club, and various breed and sport organizations that totaled 2,587 names. The procedures used by MCSR were standard, proven mail survey techniques (Dillman, 2000). Mailing and data collection were conducted from April 2 to May 25, 2004. The first mailing, sent to horse owners on April 2, included the following: 1) a cover letter inviting participation in the survey; 2) the survey instrument; and 3) a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. The second mailing consisted of a reminder postcard, which was sent on April 9 to all horse owners selected to receive the survey. On April 23, a third mailing was sent to all individuals who had not yet returned their survey. This mailing was identical procedurally to the first mailing and included a copy of the questionnaire, a reminder cover letter, and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope. Response RateThe survey identified the need for a statewide horse program in Minnesota and gave insight into the topics of interest and how horse owners want to receive horse-related information. The survey had a response rate of 69% (Table 1). Response rates from previous mail surveys have been between 20% (Swinker, Tozer, Shields, & Landis, 2003) and 43% (Downing & Finley, 2005). The higher response rate is indicative of the interest horse owners have in obtaining horse-related information and adds to the reliability of the results.
Demographic Horse Owner InformationOf survey respondents:
Educational Information Wanted by Horse OwnersThe survey indicated horse owners believe they are very knowledgeable on topics relating to general horse care; and somewhat knowledgeable on topics relating to horse facilities, horse health, horse nutrition, and pasture management (Figure 1). Figure 1.
When asked how important it is that organizations and professionals develop and present educational programs, the respondents ranked veterinarians high (Table 2).
When asked what qualities individuals and organizations should possess before they attempt to provide information to horse owners, the number one quality was having quick access to specialists when needed (Table 3). Personally owning their own horse seemed to add credibility to specialists or individuals. It is interesting to note that the respondents rated college/university training in either veterinary medicine or equine management as important. However, being affiliated with a university was not very important, indicating that university employment is not critical but having formal education at the university level is.
Thirty-eight percent of respondents said they had attended one to two horse programs, 15% had attended three to four programs and 10% indicated they had attended five or more programs in the past 12 months. Most respondents who had attended a horse program said they had attended the Minnesota Horse Expo. Forty-eight percent of horse owners who attended programs drove less than 50 miles, 32% drove between 50 and 100 miles and 20% drove more than 100 miles to horse programs. However, 36% of respondents indicated they had not attended a horse program in the last 12 months. The majority of individuals indicated either time constraints, not knowing about the program, or no horse program offered in their area as reasons for not attending. The majority of respondents currently obtain information from equine magazines, other horse owners, veterinarians, trainers, and farriers (Figure 2). On average, Minnesota horse owners purchase seven magazines, three books, five pamphlets and two videos or DVDs pertaining to horses per year. Figure 2.
When asked where they would most likely obtain horse-related information, horse owners preferred short publications, the Internet, and evening seminars. Saturday morning programs, on-line courses, and all-day Saturday programs were less desirable. The majority of "other" venues listed for obtaining educational material were related to hands-on training sessions by professional trainers (Figure 3). Figure 3.
When asked how likely they would be to attend programs in person in their area, a majority of respondents (90%) were likely to attend programs on horse health, 87% on horse nutrition, 69% on general horse care, 67% on pasture management, and 62% on horse facilities. The top 10 topics respondents want to learn about were: basic training, vaccinations, hoof care, horse nutrition, colic, equine behavior, proper tack fitting, fly and pest control, when to call a veterinarian, and poisonous plants (Table 4).
Applying Survey Information to Develop Extension ProgramsThe survey data suggest that Minnesota horse owners are interested in becoming more knowledgeable in various areas of equine management. University faculty may need to combine less desirable topics (e.g., manure management) with more desirable topics (e.g., vaccinations) to ensure that horse owners get all of the information they need. One key piece of information provided by the survey was that Minnesota horse owners want veterinarians and local businesses included in Extension programs. As a result, five programs for horse owners were held across the state in February and March of 2006. These programs included local equine industry personnel as well as university faculty. These programs were very successful as indicated by high attendance (676 total participants) and positive evaluation ratings. The results of these meetings confirmed that programs involving local equine businesses can be successful, most likely because horse owners have a level of trust for local businesses. The positive response to programs with industry involvement supports the validity of the survey data, which indicated horse owners wanted industry involvement. The Minnesota horse owner has different educational interests and needs compared to other clients that the agriculture division of the Extension Service is familiar with serving. Evaluations from the 2006 programs indicated that approximately 80% of participants were unfamiliar with the Extension Service and/or University of Minnesota horse programming. Eighty-four percent of the attendees were female between the ages of 30 to 50 years old, revealing the need for and importance of providing equine education to adults. Program evaluations will continue to provide constant feedback and needs assessments for adult equine educational programs. There were numerous similarities between program evaluations and survey data, primarily in participant demographics and topics participants want to learn about. These similarities further reflect the validity of the survey results. Results of the survey were also used to develop the University of Minnesota Horse Team. This was a challenging task because there are no University of Minnesota faculty members with a significant Extension appointment in the area of equine science. However, the survey helped convince departments and colleges within the university of the need for equine Extension programming. The University of Minnesota Horse Program Team now consists of 15 faculty members from nine departments or colleges. The majority of strategic planning, vision and leadership responsibility for the program comes from team members in the Extension Service, the Department of Animal Sciences, Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota Equine Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, and the University of Minnesota at Crookston. The Horse Team also involves equine industry through input from the Equine Advisory Committee. This committee meets with the Horse Team and consists of local veterinarians, feed salespeople and nutritionists, hay producers, farriers, and Minnesota Horse Council Members. ConclusionsTo the best of our knowledge this is the first survey conducted to determine the educational needs of horse owners. Using surveys to identify educational needs in Extension is not new (Downing & Finley, 2005; Lichtkippler, 1986), but educational needs of horse owners have not been previously reported. Other surveys have focused on equine breed numbers, economics, demographics (Swinker, Tozer, Shields, & Landis, 2003; Geene, 2002) and characteristics of 4-H equine volunteers and leaders (Rusk, Kerr, Talbert, & Russell, 2001). Perhaps this is because horses and horse owners have been considered "alternative" agriculture or "hobby" farmers. However, this is no longer the case as the horse industry has grown quickly and has become a major part of several states' economies (USDA/NASS, 2002). The excellent response rate to this survey is indicative of the eagerness of horse owners to improve their knowledge regarding equine topics. From our experience, obtaining high response rates is a combination of pre-survey focus groups, endorsement by local organizations, assistance from a professional survey center, and multiple mailings. Because of the information learned through the horse owner survey, the Horse Team has reached a new audience, determined how that audience wants to obtain information, and has forged partnerships with private industry. The survey has helped the Extension Service lay the groundwork for a solid, long-term relationship with horse owners and equine industry in Minnesota. The methods and applications of this survey may be extrapolated and used by other states with underserved horse owner populations or in other areas of Extension. ReferencesBuhr, B. (2004). Economic value of horses in Minnesota. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.extension.umn.edu/horse/components/pdfs/EconomicValueHorsesMN.pdf Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method. (2nd Edition) New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Downing, A .K, & Finley, J. C. (2005). Private forest landowners: What they want in an educational program. Journal of Extension, [On-line], 43(1) Article 1RIB4. Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/2005february/rb4.shtml Greene, B. (2002). Vermont equine survey. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.vermonthorse.com/vhc02/equinesurvey.html Lichtkoppler, F. R. (1986). Surveys help program development. Journal of Extension, [On-line], 24(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1986winter/iw2.html Rusk, C. P., Kerr, C. A., Talbert, B. A., & Russell, M. A. (2001). Profiling Indiana's 4-H horse and pony leaders. Journal of Extension, [On-line], 39 (4). Available at: http://joe.org/joe/2001august/rb3.html Swinker, A.M., Tozer, P.R., Shields, M.L., & Landis, E.R. (2003). Pennsylvania's equine industry inventory, basic economic and demographic characteristics. [On-line]. Available at: http://www.das.psu.edu/user/equine/pdf/EquineSurveyResults-Academic.pdf United States Department of Agriculture/National Agricultural Statistic Service. (2002). [On-line]. Available at: http://www.nass.usda.gov/census/
Continuing Education Interests of Master Gardener Volunteers: Beyond Basic TrainingCatherine Moravec IntroductionContinuing education programs are an important component of vigorous Master Gardener programs. Cooperative Extension's high-quality educational programs recruit, retain, and motivate Master Gardener Volunteers. In one study, Master Gardener applicants rated the opportunity to increase their knowledge as the main motivator for applying to the Master Gardener Program (Simonson & Pals, 1990). Missouri Master Gardeners ranked benefits related to increasing knowledge and understanding as the most highly valued benefits of the program (Schrock, Meyer, Ascher, & | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
