Contents

Editor's Page

Editor's Page

Commentary

Addressing Educational Needs of Youth in Today's Society

Schlink, Kitty-Sue
The responsibility for who will educate today's youth is shifting. Where the parents, schools, and the community once provided an equal share in the teaching of our youth, a deficit is occurring. Today's child may only have one parent, class sizes may be too large, and the community may be stretched beyond its ability to provide assistance. Extension after school programs aid in school enrichment; non-traditional 4-H projects get youth involved in their communities; and traditional 4-H programs and project camps provide adult role models and subject knowledge for youth. Extension is well situated to provide youth education in today's society.

Feature Articles

Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: Linking Research and Practice

Johns, Marilyn J.; Moncloa, Fe; Gong, Elizabeth J.
Although the overall rate of teen pregnancy in the United States has been declining, rates have remained high for younger unmarried teens. Evaluation studies of pregnancy prevention programs indicate that many are ineffective or not well evaluated. The focus of this article is to identify and share 10 suggested "best practices" from the field and literature. Three critical practices identified are: a youth development component, family involvement, and culturally relevant practices. Implications for Cooperative Extension programming are discussed.

Health and Safety Behaviors: Reduced Risks Promote Health

Smith, Susan M.; Keel, Martha; Ballard, Michael
Extension employees, working at the local, regional, or state level, are involved in a profession with many rewards and many stressors. Information pertaining to health and safety risk behaviors was collected using a computerized questionnaire completed by approximately 50% of the state Extension specialists and county agents serving rural and urban communities in a large southern agricultural state. The questionnaire focused on individual health behaviors and perceptions. These included the following categories: overall self-reported physical health status, losses experienced in the last year, satisfaction with life, seatbelt use, driving habits, exercise, alcohol, cigarette use, and food habits. The most serious health risk factors identified by this study were excessive levels of stress, elevated cholesterol levels, and insufficient physical activity (exercise). If left unchecked, these risk factors could have a significant impact on job effectiveness, performance, and quality of life of Extension agents.

Research in Brief

The Relationship Between Tenure and Non-Tenure Track Status of Extension Faculty and Job Satisfaction

Nestor, Patrick I.; Leary, Paul
This study examined the relationship between tenure and non-tenure track status of Extension faculty and job satisfaction. Data were collected through questionnaires mailed to West Virginia University Extension faculty (85% responding). Analysis revealed non-tenure track faculty reporting significantly more intrinsic job satisfaction than tenure track faculty. Significant relationships also exist between age and intrinsic job satisfaction and years at the institution and intrinsic and overall satisfaction. Respondents ages 23-33 and 46-50 are more satisfied than those 34-45 and more than 51 years old. Those with 21+ years at the institution are more satisfied than faculty with 1-5 and 6-9 years.

Practical Considerations When Selecting a Soil Testing Laboratory for an Educational Program

Neufeld, Jerry; Davison, Jay
Extension professionals involved in applied agronomic research projects commonly use analytical laboratories for soil sample analysis to determine the nutrient status of agricultural soils. Additionally, many Cooperative Extension clientele and program collaborators use soil testing laboratories for the same purpose. Determination of soil nutrient status is important to maximize production and returns as well as to minimize negative impacts to the environment. There is, however, a great deal of variability associated with the analytical results received from many soil testing laboratories. Variability has the potential to negatively impact applied research projects and recommendations made to Cooperative Extension clientele. In 1995 and 1996, a study was conducted to quantify and illustrate the variability problem and to develop a set of recommendations that can be used to assist Cooperative Extension professionals and program clientele in selecting a quality soils testing laboratory. Our results indicate there is a sufficient amount of variability in results received from soil testing laboratories to make it worthwhile to research analytical soil testing laboratories before selecting one for use.

Tools of the Trade

Washington State University On-line Volunteer Management Certification Program

Sherfey, Lauri E.B.; Hiller, Janet; Macduff, Nancy; Mack, Nancy
The on-line Volunteer Management Certificate Program (VMCP) is a non-credit course delivered through the Internet <<http://vmcp.wsu.edu>> designed to:
1) offer a quality, professional development training course on volunteer management, delivered to individuals working in the field anytime, anywhere, particularly to those in rural communities with minimum access to training opportunities.
2) develop quality distance delivery of educational programs through the technology of the Internet.
3) promote and enhance the profession of volunteer management as a field of expertise.
4) bring recognition to Cooperative Extension as a leader in the emerging field of volunteer management.

Before You Say Yes: A Planning Guide for Speakers

Francis, Charles; Carter, Heidi; Carusi, Cris; King, James
We need guidelines to help us decide whether to accept invitations to speak, whether to a class on campus or a special interest group outside. As educators and workshop organizers, we could also use suggestions on how to approach potential speakers. This article describes a single-page format that can be used to guide the planning process. Essential elements include contact information, location and organization of the activity, audience, learning goals, expected content, conclusions, and evaluation. Use of this planning sheet can give organization to an often haphazard process of planning, and enhance the potential of achieving the learning goals of a presentation.

Tools for Evaluating Written and Audiovisual Nutrition Education Materials

Betterley, Connie; Dobson, Brenda
An important step in delivering effective Extension nutrition education programs is to evaluate educational materials for specific target audiences. This article describes two new resources available to help Extension professionals use consistent criteria and a systematic process for selecting effective written and audiovisual materials.

Two Techniques to Foster Collaboration Within a Group

Rebori, Marlene K.
This article describes two techniques that a facilitator can use to help foster collaboration within a group: ground rules for effective behavior and a consensus framework for decision-making. Examples are included that outline how a facilitator can apply these techniques in a group.

Questions & Answers for Authors

Q&A for Authors

Submission Instructions

Instructions for Submitting Articles

Review and Evaluation Process

Review and Evaluation Process

Editorial Committees and Board

Editorial Committee and Board

In this "Editor's Page" I'm going to call for a particular kind of Commentary submission. But first let me highlight a coincidence in the August issue of JOE.

August JOE

Two of this month's articles, "Health and Safety Behaviors: Reduced Risks Promote Health" and "The Relationship Between Tenure and Non-Tenure Track Status of Extension Faculty and Job Satisfaction," focus on Extension staff, themselves. They address their quality of life and their degree of job satisfaction.

That's coincidence enough. But what's also noteworthy is that both cite--and cite more than once--a JOE article from 1994: "Job Satisfaction and Commitment of 4-H Agents" <http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/rb2.html>.

In April <http://www.joe.org/joe/2000april/ed1.html> I observed that "JOE works," that "it speaks to the interests of today's Extension professionals and addresses the challenges they face." and it obviously does. These articles are proof.

But speaking of challenges . . .

JOE Is Looking for a Few (More) Good Commentaries

Last issue's Commentary, "The Gift of a New Generation" <http://www.joe.org/joe/2000june/comm1.html>, and this month's, "Addressing Educational Needs of Youth in Today's Society," are good pieces. They're implicitly challenging and thought provoking.

Now we'd like to see something a little more explicit and provocative. In our submission guidelines <http://www.joe.org/sub1.html> we ask for Commentary submissions that "offer a challenge or present a thought-provoking idea on an issue of concern to Extension," that "initiate discussion or debate."

How about it?

The authors of this issue's "Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: Linking Research and Practice" say they "found limited science-based information on culturally appropriate practices with Hispanics, African Americans, and Asian Americans" and that "our challenge is to conduct applied research in this multicultural context to identify culturally appropriate practices."

Do we have the resources to do it? Should we shift resources from serving other audiences to meet this challenge? If we do, will we lose our traditional support base? Ought we to care?

What about the issue of advocacy for agriculture?

Biotechnology?

Animal rights (or welfare or well-being)?

Private-sector competition?

The role and value of face-to-face contact in this high and increasingly higher tech era?

Any comments on these or any other of the myriad of issues facing us as Extension professionals today--issues about which we don't always agree? Anything that you could think about and turn into a good Commentary?

Laura Hoelscher, Editor

Addressing Educational Needs of Youth in Today's Society

Kitty-Sue Schlink
Associate Professor and Extension Educator: Family and Youth
University of Idaho
Lewiston, Idaho
Internet address: kittysue@uidaho.edu

Divided Responsibility

The responsibility for who will educate today's youth is shifting. Where the parents, schools, and the community once contributed an equal share to the teaching of our youth, a deficit is now occurring. Today's child may only have one parent, class sizes in school may be too large for individual attention, and the community may be stretched beyond its ability to provide assistance by outside forces such as gang violence or a struggling economy (see Figure 1).

Extension can provide the assurance that educational needs of today's youth are being met. In many communities, after school programs, traditional 4-H programs, project camps, and non-traditional projects provided by Extension educators can and do take up the slack left by this possible void in educational opportunities for youth.

Figure 1. Divided Responsibility in Youth Education

After School Programs

With a large number of children being left unsupervised as more parents are working outside the home or as the percentage of single parents increases, a greater number of children are becoming "latch-key kids" or children who come home from school to an empty house. National studies show that children left at home alone are bored, lonely, and at the highest risk to fall into negative behavior patterns ranging from violent crime to excessive television use.

In Lewiston, Idaho, the After School Adventures Program sponsored by the University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System provides a safe, affordable, and conveniently located out-of-school environment for elementary-aged children. Patterned after similar Extension programs in the state, school-age children in kindergarten through sixth grades are bussed to central elementary school locations, which operate from school release until 6 p.m. during the regular school calendar, including early release days. Activities each day include recreational time, a nutritious snack, directed enrichment programs, and a homework club. Programs such as these also facilitate the teaching of life skills and support the development of friendships.

Parents, school-age care staff, school district principals, and teachers are complimentary regarding the program. The majority of parents rated the health/safety condition, quality of educational activities, and quality of recreational activities as excellent. The parents felt the program is successful in helping children develop interests in new topics/activities and in helping children be more willing to follow directions and rules of adults.

Program staff have been successful in helping children develop new interests, helping children become more skilled at joining group activities, and helping rejected children make new friends. The results of a nationwide poll by the Mott Foundation agreed with the Lewiston, Idaho findings. There is an abundance of visible, beneficial results from after school programs for both society and the individual child.

Traditional 4-H Programs

The Search Institute has identified 40 developmental assets that have a strong impact on young people's lives. Although this asset framework includes school involvement, community support, and individual guidance, traditional 4-H programs positively impact young lives outside of these organizations. The eight categories with which the assets are grouped are support, empowerment, boundaries and expectations, constructive use of time, commitment to learning, positive values, social competencies, and positive identity.

Youth interaction with both 4-H volunteer leaders and parent(s) meet more than half of the 40 developmental assets identified over all categories. Although 4-H projects have traditionally emphasized subject area knowledge, the interaction that occurs between member and leader while learning how to accomplish a task is highly beneficial. Trained volunteer leaders can and do fill some voids in education and mentoring in a child's development.

Non-Traditional Projects and Project Camps

4-H projects are shifting their focus to more non-traditional subjects to meet the shift in educational needs and interests of young people. In a 4-H club in West Oakland, California, youth are involved in projects from Rockets to Double Dutch jump rope. Young people in Idaho 4-H are following the national trends and learning interesting new projects such as sports-fishing and shooting sports.

Community pride projects such as the Lewiston, Idaho Downtown Association Beautification project, which partners local business owners and 4-H members to enhance the visual aspects of their downtown, provide skills in communication, citizenship, and leadership. Projects that develop social and behavioral skills without necessarily creating a tangible object for review at the end of the project year are attracting more and more interest from 4-H members. Many 4-H members themselves realize that they will positively benefit from the education they receive from these non-traditional projects.

Weekend natural resource camps such as the Inland Empire Natural Resources camp in northern Idaho provide unique opportunities for young people to come together for a short amount of time to learn a specific subject matter while interacting with peers and adults. Camps focusing on fun while encouraging learning offer opportunities for future involvement by stimulating the interest of the participants. Projects taken from beginning to completion in one day or even one afternoon can also allow learning to be tucked into the busy schedules of today's young people.

Where Will the Lines Be Drawn?

Extension educators are uniquely situated to work as partners in their communities to develop quality educational programs outside of the traditional school environment (Figure 2). While the lines of responsibility continue to shift as society changes, this shift provides Extension educators with an excellent opportunity to meet with young people living in their local communities, to work with them, and to develop their values through program development.

Figure 2. Where the Lines Could Be Drawn: The Potential for Addressing the Needs of Youth Education

Extension after school programs aid in school enrichment; non-traditional 4-H projects get youth involved in their communities; and traditional 4-H programs and project camps provide adult role models and subject knowledge for youth. Extension is well situated to fill the potential void in youth education in today's society.

References

Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. (1998). Nationwide poll of support for after-school programs. Lake Snell Perry/The Tarrance Group. Flint, MI.

Fox, J. A., & Newman, S. A. (1997). After-school crime or after-school programs. Report to the U.S. Attorney General: Fight Crime Invest in Kids. Washington, DC.

Heredia, C. (1999, August 4). The new 4-H. San Francisco Chronicle, pp A13, 20.

Idaho Kids Count. (2000). Idaho KIDS COUNT 1999-2000: Profiles of child well-being. Mountain States Group, Inc.: Boise, ID.

Search Institute. (1997). The asset approach: Giving kids what they need to succeed. Search Institute: Minneapolis, MN.

Feature Articles

Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: Linking Research and Practice

Marilyn J. Johns
Youth Development, Nutrition, Family & Consumer Science Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
Half Moon Bay, California
Internet address: Mjjohns@ucdavis.edu

Fe Moncloa
Youth Development Advisor
University of California Cooperative Extension
San Jose, California
Fxmoncloa@ucdavis.edu

Elizabeth J. Gong
Program Representative
University of California Cooperative Extension
San Jose, California
Ejgong@ucdavis.edu

Introduction

The United States has the highest teen pregnancy rate of any industrialized country, and California continues to have one of the highest teen pregnancy rates in the nation. Although the overall rate of teen pregnancy has been declining since 1991, the rates have remained high for teens who are most vulnerable, such as younger unmarried teens. The national unmarried teen birth rate steadily decreased from 62 in 1991 to 54 births per 1,000 females in 1996--a 12% decline. The teen birth rate decreased among all races (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 1998).

Comparable to the rest of the nation, California's teen pregnancy rates have also decreased since 1991 by 16%. In 1996, the teen birth rate was 63 births per 1000 females. Although the teen (ages 15-19) birth rate in California has also decreased among all races since 1991, Hispanic teens showed the smallest decrease, from 122 in 1991 to 104 births per 1,000 females in 1996--a 15% decline. This is compared to a 23% decrease in African Americans and a 24% decrease in Non-Hispanic Whites (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 1998).

California's population of 13-19 year olds is expected to increase dramatically to 6 million (a 35% increase) by the year 2005. This is compared to an expected 13% increase in teens nationally. Unless the teen birth rate declines markedly, there will be a significant increase in the number of pregnant and parenting teens. By 2005, Hispanic youth will be the largest ethnic youth group (California Department of Health Services, 2000).

The persistent and complex problem of teen pregnancy prompted Cooperative Extension Human Resource (Family & Consumer Sciences and Youth Development) staff in three urban California counties, San Francisco, San Mateo, and Santa Clara, to jointly focus efforts on a research project in this area. These three urban San Francisco Bay Area counties have a combined population of nearly two million, with an increasing ethnic diversity that is presently 20% Hispanic, 25% Asian, 6% African American, and 49% Caucasian (1999, Association of Bay Area Governments Data Center).

What role might Cooperative Extension play in strengthening community-based programs working with pregnant and parenting teens? We synthesize "best practices" from the literature and from the field, and work with community practitioners to implement these practices as a model for improved teen pregnancy prevention.

Literature Review of "Best Practices"

Major reviews of best practices aimed at preventing adolescent pregnancy have generally focused on organized programs (Card et al., 1996; Franklin & Corcoran, 2000; Frost & Forrest, 1995; Kirby, 1997; Miller et al., 1992; Moore et al., 1995). The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy recently released a comprehensive report reviewing research on the roles of parents and families in reducing teen pregnancy (Miller, 1998). This document indicates the important influence of parents/families in preventing teen pregnancy and highlights programs that are culturally sensitive.

Adolescent pregnancy is a complex problem. There is no single or simple approach that will reduce adolescent pregnancy among all groups of teenagers. Because the causes of teen pregnancy are complicated, the strategies should be multi-pronged (Kirby, 1997).

Over the past two decades, there has been dramatic growth in the number and variety of programs aimed at preventing adolescent pregnancy. These have included education programs, family planning/contraceptive services, school-based health centers, youth development programs, and multi-component programs. Unfortunately, recent comprehensive reviews of adolescent pregnancy prevention programs concluded that few programs have been well evaluated. Of those that have been evaluated, none have been significantly successful in reducing adolescent pregnancy. However, although there are studies that indicate that some programs can have some success at reducing one or more sexual behaviors for at least a brief period of time, few studies have measured long-term effects (Kirby, 1997, 1999; Moore et al., 1995).

There are several examples of creative programmatic approaches that have shown to be promising. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy (Kirby, 1997) examined nearly 200 research articles on more than 75 programs and recommended components that should be integrated into more comprehensive pregnancy prevention initiatives.

An Assessment of Current Practices

Assessments of schools and community agencies with teen pregnancy prevention programs in San Francisco, San Mateo, and Santa Clara (California) counties were conducted using surveys, interviews, and site visits.

Thirty-five surveys were sent to schools and agencies known to have pregnant and parenting teen programs, as well as to programs trying to prevent first pregnancies in teens. Every attempt was made to reach as many programs as possible through advisors, networks, coalitions, directories, and staff. Telephone calls and reminders (mail and fax) were made to programs with unreturned surveys. After second mailings, phone calls, and faxes, we received 18 completed surveys, or a 51% response rate. In addition, 25 programs were visited. Staff members were interviewed at these site visits to get more details of their programs and complete the surveys. As a result, 23 surveys were completed (a 66% response rate).

A wide variety of primary prevention efforts was found in clinics, schools, and community agencies. A school district from each county has received a 5-year grant from the California Department of Education for primary pregnancy prevention. In addition, 11 local community-based agencies, schools, and clinics have received California Department of Health Services Community Challenge Grants for primary prevention. All three counties have adolescent sibling pregnancy prevention programs, targeting the high-risk siblings of pregnant/parenting teens. In addition, a few male involvement programs have been included in teen pregnancy prevention efforts. School-based (or school-linked) health clinics also deliver pregnancy prevention services. The primary prevention programs represent a broad spectrum of services focused on the local, specific target population.

Secondary pregnancy prevention programs, providing services and care to pregnant and parenting teenagers, were also surveyed and visited. These included county health services/public health programs, such as Adolescent Family Life Programs (intervention and case management) and Cal-Learn (for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families recipients); school programs, such as Pregnant Minors Program and School Age Parent and Infant Development Program; and community agency programs (home visitation to teen parents).

We identified and applied the following criteria to distill "best practices" based on knowledge gained from the literature and field. It is not always easy or even possible to incorporate all criteria into every program, but these criteria can provide a starting point for assessing program strengths and weaknesses in program efforts.

1. Is the best practice research-based?
2. Does evaluation show positive impact?
3. Does the best practice meet the needs of multi-ethnic audiences? Is the best practice culturally relevant?
4. Does it meet the needs of various socio-economic populations?
5. Does the identified best practice have application in a variety of settings?
6. Is it sustainable? Does it stand the test of time?

Using local program information, as many of these criteria as possible, and additional reviews (Card et al., 1996; Franklin & Corcoran, 2000; Hutchins, 1999; Kirby, 1999; Miller, 1998; Moore et al., 1995; Sonenstein, 1997), we identified the following 10 best practices for practitioners in teen pregnancy prevention (Gong, et al., 1999):

• Youth Development
• Involvement of Family and Other Caring Adults
• Male Involvement
• Cultural Relevance
• Community-Wide Campaigns
• Service Learning Programs
• Programs to Improve Employment Opportunities
• Sexuality Education and AIDS Education Programs
• Outreach in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs
• Access to Reproductive Health Services

The Role of Cooperative Extension in Teen Pregnancy Prevention

Of these best practices, we identified three to emphasize in partnering with local agencies to strengthen their practices and produce better outcomes for teens: youth development, family involvement, and cultural relevance. We chose these three because of Cooperative Extension's historic experience and expertise in these areas. Many of the community agencies have youth development and family components. However, schools with pregnant and parenting programs usually have difficulty incorporating family involvement. Practitioners expressed a need for more culturally relevant practices.

Youth Development

Youth development programs focus on supporting and encouraging young people, on providing young people with skills that will help them succeed as adults, and on helping them form meaningful relationships with adults and older peers. Young people need opportunities to acquire a broad range of skills and to build connections within their community. There is a strong relationship between educational and career plans and protection from adolescent pregnancy. Improving girls' education and life options are correlated with reduced pregnancy and birth rates (Kirby, D., 1997).

Recently, there has been a rapid growth of interest in youth development in teen pregnancy prevention efforts. National organizations have recognized youth development as a promising approach to reducing adolescent pregnancy (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1998). In addition, some federal agencies are supporting youth development models in adolescent pregnancy prevention (Family and Youth Services Bureau/U.S. Department of health and Human Services, and Community Coalition Partnership/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). In California, the Departments of Education and Health Services have large initiatives to develop and implement youth development programs to reduce teen pregnancy.

Critical elements of a youth development program include the following characteristics:

• being responsive to the needs and interests of youth and their community;
• staff are knowledgeable about adolescent development and are trained to work with youth;
• young people are regarded as resources in planning and program development; and
• the program collaborates with community organizations, government agencies, schools and families (Carnegie, 1996).

Service learning is one aspect of a youth development program that has a positive impact in reducing teen pregnancy. Service learning results when community service, the experiential learning process, and disciplined reflection are combined. Evaluations of a service learning program, from data collected across the nation, have provided some of the most consistent and strongest evidence that youth development has reduced teen pregnancy (Allen et al., 1997; Philliber and Allen, 1992). In addition to reduced pregnancy rates, service learning was effective in reducing problem behaviors, school suspensions, and school dropouts.

Cooperative Extension has a comparative advantage in youth development and has played a key role in developing programs such as academic enrichment, sports, job training, mentoring, community service, service learning, and leadership development. The role of Cooperative Extension is to continue promoting youth development programs and to document the positive impact these programs have on adolescents, specifically pregnant and parenting teens.

Involvement of Family and Other Caring Adults

While some of the programs surveyed involved families and other caring adults, most did not. Family dynamics are embedded in culture. Programs need a broad perspective, including strategies that develop family strengths and enhance parenting skills, and provide information about reproduction and contraceptive services (Moore et al., 1995).

Families play a critical role in affecting the risk of adolescent pregnancy. Family involvement should complement any program's best practices recommendations (Moore et al., 1995). The following factors have been noted to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy: parents with higher education and income; parental supervision; parents who hold strong opinions about the value of abstinence (or protected intercourse); teens who have supportive family relationships (connectedness) (Miller, 1998); and teens who participate in a large number of shared activities with parents (Resnick et al., 1997). The following factors can increase the risk for adolescent pregnancy: little supervision for teens; strict/overly controlling parents; low socioeconomic status; a single parent; older, sexually active siblings or pregnant/parenting teenage sisters (Miller, 1998); lack of religious affiliation (Kirby, 1997); and the experience of violence or abuse (Miller, 1998).

Family members, particularly parents if appropriate, need to be incorporated into teen pregnancy prevention programs in order to enhance the life opportunities of pregnant and parenting teenagers and their infants (Hanson, 1992). The complexities of multigenerational families need to be addressed (Chase-Lansdale et al., 1992). Although family involvement is labor-intensive, involving families and developing stronger family connectedness are recommended best practices in adolescent pregnancy prevention efforts.

An appropriate role for Cooperative Extension is to promote family involvement to practitioners working with pregnant and parenting teens, and to document the involvement efforts through formative and summative evaluation.

Cultural Relevance

Choosing culturally appropriate and locally relevant interventions will increase the effectiveness of efforts to reduce teen pregnancy. Understanding and sensitivity to the cultural and individual needs of the population are important in the design and implementation of any program.

According to the National Council of La Raza, Hispanic teens 15-19 years of age are twice as likely to become parents as Caucasian teens. Hispanic teenage mothers are considerably less likely to complete high school. A large percentage of Hispanic teen births are out-of-wedlock, contributing to the increase in single-parent families and the greater likelihood that these girls and their children will spend some or all of their lives in poverty (Perez and Duany, 1992). The Latino population is the fastest growing major racial/ethnic group in the United States; Latinas have the highest teen birth rate among major groups in the U.S. (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, May 1999).

The National Council of La Raza identified key characteristics of effective programs targeting Hispanic pregnant and parenting teens (Perez and Duany, 1992). These include recognizing and sensitively responding to cultural values regarding gender roles; for example, some Hispanic teen mothers might not immediately see the importance of becoming self-sufficient.

Adolescent pregnancy in the Hispanic community warrants attention; however, research on this group is limited. Programs targeting Hispanic sub-groups have been identified, but rigorous evaluations are lacking.

Cooperative Extension has extensive experience and knowledge in working with multicultural populations through both the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program and the 4-H Youth Development Program. In conducting the literature review, we found limited science-based information on culturally appropriate practices with Hispanics, African Americans, and Asian Americans. Our challenge is to conduct applied research in this multicultural context to identify culturally appropriate practices that work with pregnant and parenting teens.

Conclusion

This article focused on suggested "best practices" from the literature and from the field, and identified the role that Cooperative Extension can play to strengthen community-based programs to improve outcomes for teen parents and their children, with a focus on multi-ethnic teenagers living in urban communities. Multiple strategies for addressing the risk factors of adolescent sexual behaviors, pregnancy, and childbearing are recommended.

For our communities in San Francisco, San Mateo, and Santa Clara Counties, we focused on the "best practices" of including youth development, involvement of family and other caring adults, and culturally relevant practices to provide activities to encourage teens to think about the future and life opportunities. With the large percentage of Hispanic adolescent pregnancies, it is important to address the unique characteristics and needs of this group.

We are currently partnering with six local sites that conduct teen pregnancy prevention programs, to strengthen their capacity to deliver improved programs by incorporating the "best practices" identified in our literature and field research. We are working now to provide technical assistance in the adoption and implementation of "best practices" and in program evaluation. In this way, we renew our historic role as providers of science-based information in response to a contemporary need in our communities.

References

Allen, J. P., Philliber, S., Herrling, S., & Kuperminc, G. P. (1997). Preventing teen pregnancy and academic failure: Experimental evaluation of a developmentally based approach. Child Development, 64(4), 729-742.

Annie E. Casey Foundation. (1998). Kids count special report, when teens have sex: Issues and trends. Baltimore, MD.

Card, J. J., Niego, S., Mallari, A., & Farrell, W. S. (1996). The program archive on sexuality, health & adolescence: Promising prevention programs in a box. Family Planning Perspectives, 28, 210-220.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1996). Great transitions: Preparing adolescents for a new century. New York: Carnegie Corporation.

Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Paikoff, R. L. (1992). Research and programs for adolescent mothers: missing links and future promises. American Behavioral Scientist, 35(3), 290-312.

Franklin, C., & Corcoran, J. (2000). Preventing adolescent pregnancy: A review of programs and practices. Social Work, 45(1), 40-52.

Frost, J. J., & Forrest, J. D. (1995). Understanding the impact of effective teenage pregnancy prevention programs. Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 188-195.

Gong, E., Johns, M., Lee, F., Moncloa, F., Russell, S., & West, E. (1999). Best practices in teen pregnancy prevention: Practitioner handbook. University of California Cooperative Extension.

Hanson, S. L. (1992). Involving families in programs for pregnant teens: Consequences for teens and their families. Family Relations, 41, 303-311.

Hutchins, J. (1999). Promising approaches to preventing teen pregnancy. In T. Kreinin, S. Kuhn, A. B. Rodgers, & J. Hutchins (Eds.), Get organized: A guide to preventing teen pregnancy. Volume 1 (pp. 5-28). Washington D.C.: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Kirby, D. (1997). No easy answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington, D.C.: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Kirby, D. (1999). Reducing adolescent pregnancy: Approaches that work. Contemporary Pediatrics, 16(1), 83-94.

Miller, B. C. (1998). Families matter: A research synthesis of family influences on adolescent pregnancy. Washington, D.C.: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Miller, B. C., Card, J. J., Paikoff, R. L., & Peterson, J. L. (Eds.). (1992). Preventing adolescent pregnancy: Model programs and evaluations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Moore, K. A., Sugland, B. W., Blumenthal, C., Glei, D., & Snyder, N. (1995). Adolescent pregnancy prevention programs: Interventions and evaluations. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends, Inc.

National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1998). Start early, stay late: Linking youth development and teen pregnancy prevention. Washington, D.C.: Author.

National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1999, May). Fact Sheet. Teen pregnancy and childbearing among Latinos in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Perez, S. M., & Duany, L. A. (1992). Reducing Hispanic teenage pregnancy and family poverty: A replication guide. Washington, D.C.: National Council of La Raza.

Philliber, S., & Allen, J.P. (1992). Life options and community service: Teen outreach program. In Miller, B. C., Card, J. J., Paikoff, R. L., & Peterson, J. L. (Eds.), Preventing adolescent pregnancy: Model programs and evaluations (pp. 139-155). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(10), 823-832.

Sonenstein, F. L., Stewart, K., Lindberg, L. D., Pernas, M., & Williams, S. (1997). Involving males in preventing teen pregnancy. A guide for program planners. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.

Health and Safety Behaviors: Reduced Risks Promote Health

Susan M. Smith
Assistant Professor
Department of Health and Safety Sciences
The University of Tennessee Knoxville
Internet address: smsmith@utk.edu

Martha Keel
Associate Professor
Agricultural Extension
The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service

Michael Ballard
Assistant Professor
Department of Public Health
Western Kentucky University

Introduction

Extension employees, working at the local, regional, or state level, are involved in a profession with many rewards. These include working with people of all ages, having the respect of people in the community, helping solve real problems, serving as leaders, and being on the cutting edge of change. Some rewards are immediate, while others come after years of working to build a prosperous community. An often-heard comment about this profession is that no two days are ever the same.

On the other hand, a job with so many varying and interesting aspects can generate very high levels of stress. These stresses include working on long-term problems with limited short-term resources or working with people whose problems are so varied and complex that some of them go beyond the expertise, networking, or resources of the Extension office. Because success generates more demand for Extension services, the most productive staff may quickly create more demand than existing resources can meet. Extension's success may bring stress as well as rewards, as more requests for services requires a more complex process of setting priorities and stretching resources.

A successful and experienced Extension worker finds a constant demand on his/her time. Periods away from home can be extremely difficult, especially on young families (Bowen et al., 1994). Staying up-to-date in so many subject areas requires attendance at numerous training sessions, learning new information, acquiring additional skills, as well as exploring new technologies (Gibson et al., 1994). Because Extension is publicly funded, numerous reports are inevitable, which requires considerable time and energy.

While some amount of stress can be beneficial, when job stressors are combined with individual health risk behaviors, (e.g., smoking, diet, driving practices), the health status and quality of life of Extension personnel may be reduced. Although the particular southern state used for this study remains relatively stable, many states have experienced financial cutbacks that may create feelings of instability that result in additional stress, thereby hampering the ability of staff to help clientele (Smith et al., 1988). Increased pressure to acquire, participate in, and maintain outside (grant and gift) funding also adds stress, as do societal changes such as the increase in single parent families, working couples, and an aging population (Bowen et al., 1994).

Taking effective action to reduce present and future health problems requires that Extension staff members must first recognize job-related and personal risk factors. Second, they must minimize the effect of certain stressors through improvements in personal life-style. Risks can be minimized through changes in behavior. Such changes include proper exercise, improved diet, and reduction in alcohol and tobacco use to improve overall health. This, in turn, will increase the ability of the Extension staff member to deal with other stressors that cannot be eliminated.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this study was to identify the most frequent and serious self-reported health and safety risk behaviors of Extension personnel. A secondary purpose was the development of recommendations for future programs to reduce injury and improve health for Extension staff. Information generated from the study can serve as a guide to focus future programs to support Extension personnel in the area of risk reduction. A greater awareness of the most frequently self-reported risk behaviors can increase the success of future opportunities to reduce risk exposure and adopt healthier lifestyle choices.

Heightened awareness of safety and health risks may generate more opportunities for staff to develop strategies to reduce specific risks affecting their own personal health and safety. The long-term results of such reduced risk behaviors can include a healthier and safer workforce and increased job effectiveness and quality of life for Extension personnel and their families. The health status of Extension employees can improve when health promotion programs are provided. Extension as an organization also benefits when staff reduce health and safety risks.

Method

Information pertaining to health and safety risk behaviors was collected via a questionnaire completed by approximately 50% of the state Extension specialists and county agents in a large southern agricultural state. The questionnaire focused on individual health behaviors and perceptions. Participant responses were optically scanned for analysis. The health risk assessment was created and licensed by Eris Survey Systems of Scotts Valley California. Health and safety data were collected in the following categories: overall physical health status, exercise, alcohol use, tobacco use, seatbelt use, driving habits, dietary intake, personal losses experienced in the last year, and life satisfaction.

Questionnaires were included in the annual state Extension conference registration packet. Participation was voluntary. Respondents filled out a scan card questionnaire and returned the completed form to a designated location at the state conference. No names or identification numbers were required, and all data collected were confidential. Data were gathered and initially analyzed utilizing the ERIS software program, a computerized health risk assessment computer programs. The SPSS statistical program was used for more extensive analysis after responses were optically scanned into a group database.

Of the 400 Extension staff attending the conference, 203 voluntarily completed the 47-item instrument. Questionnaires were analyzed to identify specific risky behaviors affecting health and safety and to isolate key risk areas that might be incorporated in future safety and health risk reduction programs sponsored by either state, regional, or local organizations for Extension personnel.

Results

Approximately 50% of the conference attendees participated by returning completed questionnaires. A descriptive profile of the participants revealed that 29 (14.3%) were in the 20-29 age group, 45 (22.2%) were in the 30-39 age group, 77 (37.9%) were in the 40-49 age group, and 50 (24.6%) were more than 50 years of age. Two respondents, or 1%, did not report their age.

Safety and Health assessment responses revealed that 146 (71.9%) exercised fewer than three times per week, 122 (60.1%) ate food high in cholesterol, 97 (47.7%) drove more than 5 miles above the speed limit, 37 (18.2%) never or sometimes used a seatbelt, 10 (5.4%) had driven or ridden drunk as a passenger in the last month, 17 (8.4%) used smokeless tobacco, and 14 (6.9%) smoked cigarettes.

Data analysis revealed that 4.9% reported having diabetes, 19 (8.9%) reported taking high blood pressure medication, 7 (3.4%) had high blood pressure, 17 (8.4%) used smokeless tobacco, and 14 (6.9%) were current cigarette users (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Self-Reported Health and Safety Risk Behaviors.

When responding to a question concerning perceived overall physical health, 48 (23.6%) reported being in excellent health, 126 (62.1%) in good health, and 27 (13.3%) in fair or poor health. When a question was asked concerning whether a respondent had suffered losses or misfortunes, 50 (29.6%) reported 1 or more serious losses or misfortunes within the last 12 months. When asked about satisfaction with life, 49 (24.2%) reported being partly or not satisfied with life. One hundred fifty-one (74.4%) reported being mostly satisfied with life (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Self-Reported Perceived Health Status and Life Satisfaction

Through the application of the Chi square test and analysis, a significant difference at the .05 level was found between respondents in the age group 20-39 and the 40 and over age group in the following health and safety risk areas.

1) A significantly higher number of active smokers were among respondents over the age of 40. Of those between the ages of 20-39, 98.6% did not currently smoke, and 1 (1.4%) reported current smoking behavior. Of those in the age group of 40 or more years, 90.4% (113) reported not smoking at the present time, and 9.6% (12) reported current smoking.

2) A significantly higher number of respondents (57%) reported driving five or more miles over the speed limit. In those under 40 years of age. 42% reported this behavior. Of those reporting driving not more than 5 miles over the speed limit, 31 (41.9%) were in the age group 20-39, and 71 (56.8%) were in the age group of 40 or more.

Using a Chi Square test to statistically analyze aggregate data, a significant difference at the .05 level was also found for the following health and safety risk areas.

1) Of those participants eating foods high in cholesterol, 18.3% reported also having a fair or poor health status. Only 5.3% of individuals reporting not eating foods high in cholesterol or fat indicated fair or poor physical health status.

2) When responses of those reporting always or nearly always wearing seatbelts and those never/seldom or sometimes wearing seatbelt were compared, to those responding "yes" to foods high in fat or cholesterol, 30 (25%) reported never/seldom or sometimes wearing seatbelts. The remaining 75% of respondents eating foods high in fat reported nearly always or always wearing their seatbelt. Of those responding "no" to eating foods high in fat or cholesterol, only 5 (6.6%) reported never/seldom or sometimes wearing seatbelts, and 93.4% reported always or nearly always wearing seatbelts.

3) Seventy-seven percent of participants reporting eating foods high in fat also reported exercising fewer than 3 times per week. Of those respondents reporting consumption of food, 23% reported exercising at least 3 times a week. Of participants not eating foods high in fat or cholesterol, 48 (63.2%) reported exercising fewer than 3 times a week, and 28 (36.8%) exercised at least 3 times a week.

4) A significantly higher percentage (55%) of those over 40 years of age reported high fat intake, compared to 45% of those reporting high fat intake in the under-40-years-old group. Concerning dietary fat intake, 55 (45.1%) of respondents in the 20-39 age group reported high fat intake, compared to 67 (54.9%) in the 40 years of age and older group. There was a significant difference between the 20-39 and 40 and over group in the reporting of not eating high amounts of cholesterol. Seventeen (23%) were in the age group 20-39, and 75 (77.0%) were in the age group of 40 or more.

5) Responses concerning cholesterol and fiber consumption were analyzed. Of those responding "yes" to foods high in fat or cholesterol, 106 (87.6%) reported that they ate high fiber foods. The remaining 15 (12.4%) respondents reported eating foods low in fiber. When comparing those 72 (63%) responding "no" to eating foods high in fat or cholesterol, 96% reported eating food high in fiber, and 4.0% reported eating food low in fiber.

Implications for Extension

An analysis of the overall aggregate data provided by 203 Extension agents and specialists revealed that 122 (60%) respondents reported eating food high in cholesterol and fat. Sixty-nine (34%) reported exercising less than once a week, 77 (37.9%) reported exercising 1 to 2 times per week, and 57 (28.1%) reported exercising at least 3 times per week. These health risk behaviors reported by a majority of Extension respondents, specifically eating high cholesterol or fat and a lack of frequent exercise, can greatly increase the potential of experiencing future health problems such as cardiovascular disease, heart attack, or stroke.

This study supports strengthening efforts to improve the health status of Extension agents at the state, regional, and local levels. The strongest new programmatic emphases should be given to the most serious health risk factors identified. These include excessive levels of stress, elevated fat consumption, insufficient exercise, and excessive speed while driving. If left unchecked, these risk behaviors may have a significant impact on job effectiveness, performance, and quality of life.

Extension offices at the state and local levels must focus on reducing individual health risk factors to assist agents in reducing these risks through behavior change. Employees may at first be resistant or hesitant to make and sustain changes in lifestyle for a variety of reasons. These include time, costs, and comfort. Employee incentives can sustain risk-reduction efforts initiated by individual employees. A successful incentive used by other employers is to cost share expenses for employees and immediate family members to join local wellness or fitness centers.

Extension offices at the state level may also take a cue from business and industry for a second incentive. For years, business and industry have rewarded employees with lower health insurance premiums for participating at local wellness or fitness centers. An exercise plan for each employee is prescribed by the fitness center personnel, based on the worker's health needs. Extension employees would receive a reduced premium based on their level of activity and on reaching health-improvement goals set forth in the prescribed program. Because each agent serves as a role model within the community, more agents taking advantage of fitness programs and adopting additional health promoting behaviors will support health promotion in the community. While providing service to adults, adolescents, and children, agents can exemplify that "each person can enhance the quality of his or her life through a continual process of lifestyle improvement and balanced living" (Storlie, Baun, & Horton, 1992).

Because a significant self-reported risk factor for Extension agents was high fat intake, local, regional, and state offices should provide employees with access to healthy, low-fat dietary alternatives. Vending machines can provide food selections that are low in fat, sodium, processed sugars, and calories. Vending machines can provide healthier choices such as juices, bottled water, and other low-fat, nutritious snacks for agents to ensure that those with heavy travel schedules have access to nutritious foods.

An increased program focus by state and local organizations on safe driving practices of Extension personnel, including appropriate scheduling to reduce the need for high-speed driving, could reduce future injuries and fatalities caused by excessive speed and fatigue. Future state meetings and in-service training should be directed toward the improvement of individual health and well-being. Training sessions (individual sessions or workshops) can provide stimulating, complementary additions to current programming efforts at statewide conferences and in-service training. Improved health behaviors of each agent should become one of the goals for each Extension employee working at the state, regional, and local level.

Health and safety risk behaviors will continue to be a major factor affecting the personal and professional lives of Extension personnel in the next century. The results of this study serve to focus and support the need for an on-going dialogue to identify strategies to minimize health and safety risk behaviors of those working as a part of the Extension Service at the local, regional, and state level. This research also supports the need for a proactive approach to maintaining optimal health and a productive career for this valuable group of committed workers.

References

Bowen, C. F., Radhakrishna R., & Keyser R. (1994). Job satisfaction and commitment of 4-H agents. Journal of Extension [Online]. 32(1). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/rb2.html>.

Gibson, J. D., & Hillison, J. (1994). Training needs of area specialized Extension agents. Journal of Extension [Online]. 32(3). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1994october/a3.html>.

Smith, Keith L., Denton, G. (1988). Dynamics of change. Journal of Extension [Online]. 26(4). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1988winter/iw1.html>.

Storlie, J., Baun, W., & Horton, W. (1992). Guidelines for employee health promotion programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.

Research In Brief

The Relationship Between Tenure and Non-Tenure Track Status of Extension Faculty and Job Satisfaction

Patrick I. Nestor
Extension Agent, Associate Professor
4-H Youth, Family and Adult Development
West Virginia University
Dunbar, West Virginia
Internet address: pnestor2@wvu.edu

Paul Leary
Professor
Educational Leadership
Marshall University
South Charleston, West Virginia
Internet address: pleary@marshall.edu

Introduction

Extension and Public Service has completed 10 years in the promotion and tenure system at West Virginia University (WVU). During this period, three different Extension directors have revised the guidelines used to determine the requirements for granting tenure (WVU Extension Guidelines for Promotion and Tenure, 1985, 1989, & 1996). Additionally, three academic provosts have reviewed Extension files, which has caused unclear expectation by faculty. Also, not all Extension faculty are included in the tenure track status. Approximately 10% of Extension faculty are non-tenure track faculty (WVU Extension Faculty Directory, 1997). The dual tenure status has caused tenure and non-tenure employees to question the validity of tenure for Extension faculty.

In a study of job satisfaction of the Center for Extension and Continuing Education faculty, Manthe (1976) recommended the adoption of rank and tenure to give staff recognition and professional advancement. He also recommended further study of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction toward Extension faculty as it relates to tenure status (Manthe, 1976).

As a land-grant institution, WVU's mission is to provide integrated, coordinated educational programs to meet citizen needs (WVU Faculty Handbook, 1996). The successful implementation of educational programs requires sharing of resources among county faculty and the institution (Manthe, 1976). County Extension faculty provide the network for the dissemination of educational programs from WVU to meet local needs. Additionally, county Extension faculty provide linkages between citizens and the university to help solve problems by utilizing the resources and expertise of the university (Manthe, 1976; Shriver, 1968).

In order to accomplish the university's mission of educational outreach and to serve the needs of the citizens through the Extension and Public Service unit, a positive relationship must exist among and between the Extension faculty of the unit. This positive relationship can be achieved when Extension faculties display a high level of job satisfaction (Mallilo, 1990; Manthe, 1976; McAlister, 1990; Shriver, 1968).

Given these factors, a study of the job satisfaction level of Extension tenure track and non-tenure track faculty could be helpful in increasing the effective use of resources and implementing program design to meet institutional mission and citizen needs. Increasing job satisfaction could also increase productivity of all faculty members (Asbury, 1996; Manthe, 1976). This study was based upon the recommendations from previous studies of the topic by Asbury (1996), Manthe (1976), and Shriver (1968).

Promotion and Tenure

Initially, field agents were not part of the campus-based faculty and, thus, were evaluated under different criteria from campus-based faculty (McAlister, 1990). Over time, land-grant institutions began reviewing the criteria and processes involved in tenure, promotion, salary structure, and degree requirements relative to field agents, with the result that some institutions adopted the practice of giving field agents the same rank, promotion, and tenure as their campus-based faculty (McAlister, 1990).

Promotion and tenure evaluation criteria of faculty in higher education have been reviewed over the years (Diamond, 1993; Leigh & Anderson, 1992; McAlister, 1990). The criteria used for evaluating and granting promotion and tenure in land-grant institutions have created an anomaly in the evaluation process and procedures (Leigh & Anderson, 1992). Manthe (1976) proposed that tenure status could be a key to increasing the effectiveness of Extension field faculty by enhancing their job satisfaction.

Job Satisfaction

The concept of job satisfaction has been typically defined as an individual's attitude about work roles and the relationship to worker motivation (Vroom, 1967). The job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction theory is the basis of Herzberg's job satisfaction study of accountants and engineers (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959).

Herzberg's (1959) concept of job satisfaction distinguished two separate groups of factors influencing individual job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The first group, called "motivators," leads to job satisfaction; the second group, called "hygienes," leads to job dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1969; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator factors of job satisfaction include achievement, recognition, the work itself, and the intrinsic interest of the job (Herzberg, 1969). Hygiene factors of the job include pay, job security, working conditions, policy and administration, and relationships with peers and supervisors (Herzberg, 1969; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Herzberg (1969) referred to motivators as "intrinsic factors" and hygienes as "extrinsic factors."

Job Satisfaction and Selected Demographic Characteristics

Job satisfaction literature provides additional support for personal characteristics influencing work and job satisfaction (Bedeian, Farris, & Kacmar 1992; Gibson & Klein, 1970; Kasperson, 1982). Research has supported personal characteristics as predictors of job satisfaction.

1. Age (Bedeian, 1992; Bowen, Radhakrishna & Keyser, 1994; Gibson & Klien, 1970; Glenn, Taylor & Weaver, 1977; Janson & Martin, 1982; Manthe, 1976).

2. Gender (Bowen, Radhakrishna, & Keyser, 1994; Hudson, 1989; Hulin & Smith, 1964; Rosen, 1991; Sachs, Chisler, & Devlin 1992; Thoreson, Kardash, Leuthold, & Morrow, 1990).

3. Years of experience (Bedeian et al., 1992; Bowen, Radhakrishna, & Keyser, 1994; Manthe, 1976).

The literature supporting job satisfaction and age has indicated that overall job satisfaction increases as faculty members mature (Gibson & Klien, 1970; Janson & Martin, 1982). The research done on Extension faculty by Bowen et al. (1994) and Bedeian et al. (1992) has indicated that Extension faculty members' job satisfaction increased as they matured.

The literature supporting job satisfaction and gender is divergent. Freisen et al. (1983), Mwange and McCaslin (1994), and Varca et al. (1983) found that male faculty member were more satisfied with their jobs than female faulty. Conversely, Hodson (1989) and Kelly (1989) found that female employees have increased job satisfaction over males.

The literature supporting job satisfaction and years of experience has indicated that no relationship was found between job satisfaction and years of experience (Bedeian et al., 1992; O'Rielly & Roberts, 1975). However, research done by Bowen et al. (1994), Mwange and McCaslin (1994), Manthe (1976), Boltes et al. (1995), and Bertz and Judge (1994) found that overall job satisfaction increased as the years of experience increased.

Job Satisfaction and Extension Faculty

Research literature referring to the relationship of tenure track and non-tenured track Extension faculty and job satisfaction is currently limited in scope. Nonetheless, factors related to job satisfaction are relevant in the prevention of employee frustration and low job satisfaction, because employees work harder and perform better if satisfied with their jobs (Asbury, 1996; Boltes, Lippke, & Gregory, 1995; Bowen, Radhakrishna, & Keyser, 1994; Mallilo, 1990; Manthe, 1976; McCaslin & Mwangi, 1994; Riggs & Beus, 1993; Shriver, 1968).

Job Satisfaction and Tenure Status

In a study dealing with job satisfaction of tenure and non-tenure track Extension faculty in Texas, Boltes, Lippke, and Gregory (1995) conducted research to investigate the relationship between dimensions of organizational contribution and employee job satisfaction. They used faculty involvement, positive balance between work and home, vision, diversity, and professional development as predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Overall, 75% to 80% of tenured Extension faculty expressed concern or dissatisfaction in all seven dimensions of the survey.

The six predictors used by Riggs and Beus (1993) to evaluate job satisfaction among Extension field faculty in eight western states represented both motivators and hygiene factors. Findings from the Extension faculty surveyed indicated overall job satisfaction was moderately high.

Purpose of Study

This study attempted to analyze the roles of tenure and non-tenured track status of Extension faculty of West Virginia University and their relationship to job satisfaction. Additionally, this study analyzed selected demographic characteristics of Extension faculty of West Virginia University and their relationship to job satisfaction.

Research Questions

1. Is there a significant relationship between tenure track status of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

2. Is there a significant relationship between tenure track status of non-tenured Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

3. Is there a significant relationship between non-tenure track status of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

4. Is there a significant relationship between age of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

5. Is there a significant relationship between gender of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

6. Is there a significant relationship between years of experience of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

Population/Sample

The population of Extension faculty consisted of all tenure track and non-tenure track faculty (N=190) employed in the West Virginia University Extension and Public Service unit as listed by the WVU Department of Human Resources and Office of Management Services at WVU Extension during the current year. The entire population of 190 Extension faculty was surveyed. The findings allowed for generalizability to the West Virginia Cooperative Extension Service.

Instrumentation

This study used an instrument divided into two parts to collect the data. Part I included a demographic response section, and Part II included a job satisfaction response section.

The Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Scale (MCMJSS) was used to evaluate the job satisfaction of tenure and non-tenure track Extension faculty of West Virginia (Mohrman, Cooke, Mohrman, Duncan, & Zaltman, 1977). The instrument was designed to measure self-perception of job satisfaction using an 8-item scale subdivided into two sections. Each of the two sections contained four questions, each using a 6-point Likert-type scale. The 6-point Likert-type scale allows for the highest responses to be indicated as 6 and the lowest response to be indicated as 1.

Demographic data were collected using a version of the questionnaire designed by Manthe (1976). The demographics selected for use in this study included: current tenure status, gender, age, and years of experience.

Methods

This study was a one-shot case study (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The study used self-reported questionnaire survey methods to gather data. Each Extension faculty member was mailed copies of the survey instrument with response instructions, along with a letter of introduction and an assurance of respondent confidentiality. The population was asked to complete and return the instrument within 10 working days in an enclosed self-addressed, stamped envelope. Within the 10 working days, a second survey was mailed to Extension faculty. Responses were numbered by date of collection. A return rate of 50% plus one was the goal of the study to allow data analyses to provide relevant findings (Kerlinger, 1986). Telephone contacts were made to increase the number of responses prior to analysis of the data.

Analysis of Data

Data were analyzed using the General Linear Models included in the Statistical Analysis System (SAS). Additionally, the variables were compared using regression, analysis of variance, frequency distributions, and descriptive analyses to examine for significance factors. The MCMJSS instrument was reviewed to establish an internal, an external, and an overall score for each individual. An Alpha level of 0.05 was used as the level of significance for this study. The data were configured in a 3X3 paradigm: three independent variables were analyzed with three dependent variables. The remaining independent variables were analyzed with the three dependent variables. Post hoc analyses were conducted as needed.

Descriptive Data

The first demographic item asked respondents about their tenure status, and 124 indicated they were in a tenure track position. Forty-two of the respondents reported they were not in a tenure track position. In the surveys returned, 91 respondents were tenured, and 33 respondents were not tenured in the tenure track position.

The respondents were to choose one of seven categories listed on the survey sheet that best described their job category. The seven choices were:

1. 4-H/Youth Program
2. Agriculture Programs
3. State Program Specialist
4. Family & Consumer Science Program
5. Community & Economic Development Program
6. Administrative/Leadership Team
7. Other

The responses indicated that 47 (29%) were 4-H/Youth, 27 (16.7%) were in agriculture, 23 (14.27%) were state specialists, 19 (11.7%) were in Family and Consumer Science, 11 (6.8%) were in Community and Economic Development, 12 (7.4%) were administrators, and 23 (14.2%) indicated other. The other category included respondents indicating they had responsibilities for more than one program area.

One hundred sixty (98.7%) of the 162 respondents indicated their gender. Eighty (50%) were female, and 80 (50%) were male.

All 162 respondents indicated their age, and the mean age reported was 44 years. From an array of respondent ages, the range was divided into four groups of equal frequency. These four quartile ranges were ages 23-33, 34-45, 46-50, and more than 51 years. The age range 23-33 had a 35 (22%) response level. The age range 34-45 had a 52 (32%) response level (the largest number of surveys returned). The age range 46-50 had a 33 (20%) response level. The age range more than 51 years had a 42 (26%) response level.

The 162 respondents indicated their years of experience as an Extension faculty member at West Virginia University. The four quartile ranges were 1-5, 6-9, 10-19, and more than 20 years of experience. In the first quartile, 43 (27%) indicated they had 1-5 years of experience at WVU. In the second quartile, 42 (26%) indicated they had 6-9 years of experience at WVU. In the third quartile, 38 (23%) respondents indicated they had 10-19 years of experience at WVU. In the fourth quartile, 39 (24%) respondents indicated they had more than 20 years of experience at WVU. The mean was 12.62 years.

Respondents' total years of experience in Extension indicated the mean score for the 162 (85%) respondents was 13 years of total experience in Extension. The ranges were 1-5, 6-13, 14-19, and more than 20 total years of experience in Extension. Of the faculty returning surveys, 48 (30%) indicated 1-5 years of experience in Extension, 41 (25%) indicated 6-12 years of experience in Extension, 37 (22%) reported 14-20 years of experience, and 37 (23%) respondents reported more than 20 total years of experience in Extension.

The respondents were also asked the highest academic degree acquired. Thirteen (8.0%) indicated holding a bachelor's degree; 114 (70.4%) indicated holding a master's degree; and 35 (21.6%) indicated holding a doctoral degree.

In addition to demographic descriptive data, respondents were asked their perception of the importance of tenure, and two-thirds (66%) of respondents indicated tenure was important to them. Respondents were recorded on a f5-point Lickert-type scale.

Major Findings

Research Questions 1 and 2: Is there a significant relationship between tenure track status of tenured and non-tenured Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

The research questions were tested, and it was determined that no significant relationships existed between the variables. Table 1 presents the analysis of variance summary for Research Questions 1 and 2.

Table 1.

Analysis of Variance Summary for Tenure Status and Non-Tenure Status of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Overall Job Satisfaction

Research Question 3: Is there a significant relationship between non-tenure track status of an Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

The analysis showed a statistically significant relationship between non-tenure track status and intrinsic job satisfaction. The F value for the relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and tenure status was 5.97. This F value was statistically significant at 0.0161. Therefore, it was determined that there was a statistically significant relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and non-tenure track status Extension faculty. Those respondents that were non-tenure track status had more intrinsic job satisfaction than tenure track status respondents. The F value for the relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and non-tenure status was 1.39, which is not statistically significant. The F value for the relationship between non-tenure track status and overall job satisfaction was 3.75, which was not statistically significant. Table 2 presents the analysis of variance summary for research question three.

Table 2.

Analysis of Variance Summary for Non-Tenure Status of Extension Faculty and Their Job Satisfaction

Research Question 4: Is there a significant relationship between age of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

The relationship between age of an Extension faculty and his or her job satisfaction was tested, and it indicated that a significant relationship existed between age and intrinsic job satisfaction of Extension faculty. The F value for the relationship between age and intrinsic job satisfaction was 2.69, which was statistically significant at the 0.0481 alpha level.

Further analysis of the data through the use of Duncan's Multiple Range Test revealed that comparisons of intrinsic means for the age ranges 23-33 and 46-50 indicated significant differences between those means. This analysis revealed that Extension faculty in age group 23-33 and 46-50 were more intrinsically satisfied with their jobs than Extension faculty in age groups 34-45 and more than 51 years of age.

Research Questions 5: Is there a significant relationship between gender of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

The relationship between gender of Extension faculty and their intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction was tested, and the analysis of variance revealed no statistically significant relationship between these variables.

Research Question 6: Is there a significant relationship between years of experience of Extension faculty and their job satisfaction?

As for the relationship between years of experience of Extension faculty and job satisfaction, it was determined that no statistically significant relationship existed between these variables. The relationship between years of experience and intrinsic job satisfaction was not statistically significant.

Further analysis of the data, however, indicated that years of experience at West Virginia University was statistically significant as related to intrinsic and overall job satisfaction.

Additional analysis of the data through the use of the Tukey's Studentized Range (HSD) Test reaffirmed the statistical significance that existed between intrinsic and overall job satisfaction and years of experience of Extension faculty at WVU. This analysis revealed that Extension faculty were intrinsically and overall significantly more satisfied with their job the longer they were employed with WVU.

Conclusions

The findings generated by the analyses of data resulted in the following conclusions. The literature has indicated that there is a relationship between tenure status and job satisfaction (Bretz & Judge, 1994; Horenstein, 1993; Leigh & Anderson, 1992; Riggs & Beus, 1993). In this study, there was no statistically significant relationship between tenure status and extrinsic and overall job satisfaction. However, in this study a statistically significant relationship was found between non-tenure track status and intrinsic job satisfaction. This finding does not substantiate the assertion that tenure status improves job satisfaction. This study indicates that non-tenure track status faculty have higher job satisfaction among Extension faculty in West Virginia.

Additionally, the literature has indicated that there is a positive relationship between gender and job satisfaction, with female respondents having higher job satisfaction (Friesen, Holdaway, & Rice, 1983; Glenn, Taylor, & Weaver, 1977; Hodson, 1989; Loscocco & Roschell, 1991), years of experience, (Gruneberg, 1979; O'Reilly & Roberts, 1975; Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992). However, in this study, no statistically significant relationship existed between these variables.

Further analyses of the data revealed that a relationship exists between the respondents' years of experience at WVU and their increased intrinsic and overall job satisfaction. These findings support the research done by Bedeian, Ferris, and Kacmar (1992) and Bowen, Radhakrishina, and Keyser (1994) that Extension faculty have increased job satisfaction the longer they are employed at an institution.

Additionally, the literature contains numerous references to the relationship between age and job satisfaction (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992; Gibson & Klein, 1970; Glenn, Taylor, & Weaver, 1977; Gruneberg, 1979; Janson & Martin, 1982; McCaslin & Mwangi, 1994). The Extension faculty in this study indicated higher intrinsic job satisfaction in ages of 23-33 and 46-50 when compared to ages of 34-46 and more than 51 years. These findings support the findings by Janson and Martin (1983) and McCaslin and Mwangi (1994), which indicated that the older an employee, the higher his or her job satisfaction.

Implications

The results of this study provided information related to the significant relationship between non-tenure track status and intrinsic job satisfaction. One implication is that the more support provided in the work place, the more highly satisfied the faculty member is likely to be. These data supporting the relationship between non-tenure track status and job satisfaction could be most important when new faculty are recruited. Also, new faculty, when considering a position, could review the data on tenure status in formulating their career plans (Bretz & Judy, 1994; Horenstein, 1993).

Given the foregoing, it is reasonable to assume that land-grant institution administrators and faculty should work together to provide greater levels of achievement, recognition, and work task satisfaction among tenured and non-tenured faculty. This could be accomplished by providing mentoring of new faculty by mature faculty or by emphasizing teamwork and collaboration on job tasks.

Institutions that train faculty could, based on the results of this study, use job satisfaction as a method for identifying, recruiting, and selecting potential faculty members. Administrators could also develop job satisfaction as a program goal for in-service and professional development courses.

Additionally, Extension organizations and institutions that recognize the relationship between age and job satisfaction could provide mentoring programs for the 34-45 and more than 51 age groups. This mentoring could reinforce the support structure for the 23-33 and 46-50 age groups (Bediean, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992; Glenn, Taylor, & Weaver, 1977; Gibson & Klein, 1970). Given the need to support the 34-45 and more than 51 age groups, this added mentoring could increase their job satisfaction, while the other age groups would gain recognition for the new relationship and support for them. Consequently, the entire organization would benefit from the increased job satisfaction of the faculty.

References

Asbury, J. E. (1996). Job autonomy and job satisfaction in the West Virginia Extension Service. Unpublished manuscript, Marshall University at Huntington, WV.

Bedeian, A. G., Farris, G. R. & Kacmar, K. M. (1992, February). Age, tenure, and job satisfaction: A tale of two perspectives. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 40(1), 33-48.

Bertz, R. D. Jr., & Judge, T. A. (1994). Person-organization fit and the theory of work adjustment: Implications for satisfaction, tenure, and career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44(1), 32-54.

Boltes, B. V., Lippke, L. A., & Gregory, E. (1995). Employee satisfaction in Extension: A Texas study. Journal of Extension [Online]. 33(5). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1995october/rb1.html>.

Bowen, C. F., Radhakrishna R., & Keyser R. (1994). Job satisfaction and commitment of 4-H agents. Journal of Extension [Online]. 32(1). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/rb2.html>.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J.C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental design for research on teaching. In N.L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Diamond, R. M. (October 1993). How to change the faculty reward system. Trusteeship, 1(5), 17-21.

Friesen, D., Holdaway, E. A., & Rice, A.W. (1983, Fall). Satisfaction of school principals with their work. Educational Administration Quarterly, 19(4), 35-58.

Gibson, J. L., & Klein, S. M. (1970, December). Employee attitudes as a function of age and length of service: A re-conceptualization. Academy of Management Journal, 13, 411-425.

Glenn, W. D., Taylor, P. A. & Weaver, C. N. (1977). Age and job satisfaction among males and females: A multi-variate, multi-survey study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(2), 189-193.

Gruneberg, M. M. (1979). Understanding job satisfaction, (1st ed.). New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Herzberg, F. (1969). Work and the nature of man (3rd ed.). Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Horenstein, B. (1993, May). Job satisfaction of academic librarians. College and Research Libraries, 54(3), 255-269.

Hodson, R. (1989). Gender differences in job satisfaction: Why aren't women more dissatisfied? The Sociological Quarterly, 30(3), 385-399.

Hulin, C. L., & Smith, P. C. (1964). Sex differences in job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 48(2), 88-92.

Janson, P., & Martin, J. K. (1982, June). Job satisfaction and age: A test of two views. Social Forces, 60(4), 1089-1102.

Kasperson, C. J. (1982). Locus of control and job satisfaction. Psychology Reports, 50(3 pt.1), 823-826.

Kelly, J. D. (1989, Summer). Gender, pay and job satisfaction of faculty in journalism. Journalism Quarterly, 66(2), 446-452.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research (3rd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.

Leigh, F. A., & Anderson, D. A. (1992, Spring). A balance of study and teaching in tenure and promotion cases. Journalism Educator, 47(1), 74-79.

Loscocco, K. A., & Roschelle, A. R. (1991, October). Influences on the quality of work and non-work life. Journal of Vocational Behavior, (2), 182-225.

Mallilo, A. (1990). Extension staff satisfaction. Journal of Extension [Online]. 28(2). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1990summer/rb5.html>.

Manthe, R. D. (1976). A job satisfaction and dissatisfaction study of the West Virginia University Extension Service. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

McAlister, J. D. (1990). Rewarding Extension faculty: Criteria for judging performance. Journal of Extension [Online]. 28(4). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1990winter/a5.html>.

McCaslin, V. L., & Mwangi, J. (1994). Job satisfaction of Kenya's Rift Valley Extension agents. Journal of Extension [Online]. 32(3). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1994october/rb1.html>.

Mohrman, A. M., Cooke, R. A., Mohrman, S. A., Duncan, R. B, & Zaltman, G. (1977). An assessment of a structural task approach to organizational development of a school system. Washington D.C.: National Institute of Education.

O'Reilly, C. A. III, & Roberts, K. H. (1975). Individual differences in personality, position in the organization and job satisfaction. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 14, 144-150.

Riggs, K., & Beus, K. M. (1993). Job satisfaction in Extension: A study of agents coping strategies and job attitudes. Journal of Extension [Online]. 31(2). Available: <http://www.joe.org/joe/1993summer/a5.html>.

Rosen, J. (1991, April). Men and women: It's different at the top. The Executive Educator, 13(4), 4-6.

Sachs, R., Chrisler, J. C. & Devlin, A. S. (1992, August). Biographic and personal characteristics of women in management. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41(1), 89-100.

Shriver, H. (1968). Role perception and job attitudes of West Virginia county Extension agents in a merged Extension system. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Thoreson, R. W., Kardash, C. M., Leuthold, D. A., & Morrow, K. A. (1990, April). Gender differences in the academic career. Research in Higher Education, 31(2), 193-209.

Varca, P. E., Shaffer, G. S., & McCauley, C. D. (1983). Sex differences in job satisfaction revisited. Academy of Management Journal, 26(2), 348-353.

Vroom, V.H. (1967). Work and motivation. 3rd. ed., New York NY: John Wiley, & Sons, Inc.

West Virginia University Guidelines for Promotion and Tenure. (1985, 1989, & 1996). West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV.

West Virginia University Faculty Handbook. (1996). West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV.

Practical Considerations When Selecting a Soil Testing Laboratory for an Educational Program

Jerry Neufeld
Extension Educator-Crops
University of Idaho Cooperative Extension System
Caldwell, Idaho
Internet address: jerryn@uidaho.edu

Jay Davison
Area Specialist
Nevada Cooperative Extension
Fallon, Nevada
University of Nevada, Reno

Introduction

Cooperative Extension professionals and program collaborators commonly use laboratory analysis of soil samples in educational programs to assist in quantifying the nutrient status of soils. When done properly, soil testing is a highly effective tool in producing high crop yields for the lowest possible costs. However, inaccurate analysis can result in additional costs, lowered production, or environmental damage from excessive fertilizer applications. The accuracy of soil testing is dependent upon proper field sampling techniques and laboratory analysis.

This article discusses variability of results associated with soil testing laboratories and suggests practical actions that Extension professionals and program collaborators can take to select a laboratory that provides accurate and precise soil testing information.

Reasons for Soil Testing

In areas under intense cultivation for many years, current crop production practices remove nutrients from the soil faster than they can be replaced by natural soil formation processes. Therefore, periodic soil testing is necessary and the only tool available to quantitatively determine current soil nutrient levels. It is widely accepted in production agriculture that soil testing is a practice that helps producers obtain high yields while enabling them to use best management practices that benefit the environment (Hawkes et al., 1985). If, however, a producer is using inaccurate soil fertility data, he or she may apply fertilizer when there is no likelihood that the application will increase yield or profits. Conversely, if the soil fertility analysis data does not indicate a need for fertilizer when it is needed, maximum economic yields may be foregone and income lost.

Agricultural producers in Idaho, Nevada, and many other areas of the U.S. are experiencing pressure from various environmental groups and government agencies to reduce non-point sources of pollution. Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers applied to agricultural lands are sources of environmental degradation, and their detrimental effects have been well documented (Ongley, 1996).

Principal problems related to agricultural runoff are contamination of surface and ground water; loss of ecosystem diversity; ecosystem dysfunction; and increases in water-borne diseases (Ongley, 1996). Agricultural crops require large amounts of macronutrients; therefore, frequent applications are necessary for optimum crop production. Accurate and precise soil analysis enables producers to apply only the amount of fertilizers needed by the crop, thereby reducing the potential for offsite movement.

Definition of the Problem

Hundreds of laboratories in North America analyze agricultural soil samples. Consequently, there are varying levels of quality in the analytical results being provided to the customer. Also contributing to soil testing variability are the different extraction methods used to quantify the same soil constituents. Certain extraction methods have been shown through research to be more accurate and precise than other methods (Miller & Kotuby-Amacher, 1996), while other extraction methods are applicable to only certain types of soil and climates (Ankerman & Large). There are no certified reference standards across the soil testing industry for quantitatively evaluating the fertility status of agricultural soil samples. All of these factors can contribute to a high degree of reporting variability.

Analytical results from soil testing laboratories can be highly variable within individual laboratories as well as between laboratories. There are methods that can be used to deal with variability when submitting large quantities of samples. For example, soil samples with known properties (reference samples) can easily be submitted as a set of blind samples within a larger set of soil samples. The results on the reference sample can then be evaluated for deviations from its known properties.

However, the authors and most producers are more likely to submit small numbers of samples. When small numbers of samples are submitted, it is harder to check on the accuracy and precision of the laboratories' results. The authors' experience indicates that it is often difficult to determine when analytical results obtained from soil testing laboratories are accurate and that excessive variability between and within laboratories is the norm rather than the exception. Therefore, a project to evaluate the variability between and within several laboratories likely to conduct soil analysis work for northern Nevada producers was undertaken. A set of recommendations to assist Cooperative Extension professionals and clientele in selecting an accurate and precise soil testing laboratory was also developed.

Materials and Methods

In 1995 and 1996, the authors conducted a project to document and evaluate soil testing variability problems encountered when using commercial soil testing laboratories. In the fall of 1995, two 5-gallon samples of Creemon silt loam soil were collected from the upper 12 inches of soil from two locations in an alfalfa field south of Battle Mountain, Nevada. Each sample was air dried, crushed, and passed through an eighteen-mesh screen to remove large particles and debris. The samples were then thoroughly mixed to make a uniform composite sample. Each composite sample was used to fill 20 soil bags, for a total of 40 samples.

Two samples from each composite sample were sent to five different soil testing laboratories (each laboratory received four samples). Two weeks later, the remaining two samples from each composite sample were sent to the same five laboratories. This procedure was repeated in the fall of 1996, except a Sonoma silt loam from Lovelock, Nevada, was used. In summary, each laboratory evaluated four replications of four different soil samples over a period of 2 years (80 samples total).

Soil laboratories commonly use different extraction methods to analyze for the same soil constituents. Nine different soil constituents were analyzed for precision in this project. They were selected because the five laboratories use the same extraction method for these constituents, thus making direct comparisons possible. Table 1 lists the constituents, the extraction methods, and units used for this project.

Table 1.

Constituents Analyzed, Extraction Methods, and Units Used

The analytical results received from the laboratories were summarized and then compared to the North American Proficiency Testing Program (NAPT, formerly called the Western States Proficiency Testing Program) values for the same years. The NAPT objectives are: 1) to provide an external measure of individual laboratory accuracy, 2) to develop a framework for improving the long-term quality of agricultural analyses, and 3) to identify levels of accuracy and precision for specific analytical methods (Miller & Kotuby-Amacher, 1996).

The NAPT's objectives are met through an intensive program whereby soil samples with known properties are submitted to voluntarily participating laboratories on a quarterly basis. Each laboratory analyzes the soil samples for nutrient status using established analytical procedures. (Miller & Kotuby-Amacher, 1998) Laboratories provide their results to the NAPT, where they are compiled and analyzed statistically. The statistical results provided by the NAPT to each laboratory show how they performed on the quarterly sample analysis compared to all other participating laboratories.

A statistical procedure called the "relative standard deviation" (RSD) is the main procedure used to evaluate laboratory results for precision. RSD is also known as "coefficient of variation" (CV). The RSD is a measure of the relative dispersion of the values in a data set (Little & Hills, 1978). RSD is calculated by dividing the standard deviation by the mean from a data set and then multiplying the dividend by 100. The lower the RSD value, the higher the level of precision. In 1995, the NAPT calculated an RSD value for 35 soil constituents submitted from 102 laboratories. In 1996, the NAPT calculated RSD values for 35 soil constituents submitted from 104 participating laboratories.

Laboratories participating in the NAPT can use the statistical data to compare their analytical results to industry-wide values and ultimately improve their analytical procedures. The NAPT does not provide data to the public about specific laboratories. Interested people must inquire from their individual laboratories as to whether or not they participate in this or any other proficiency program and whether they will share their proficiency testing data with you. However, the NAPT program does provide an annual report to the public with a summary of the data collected.

Following is an example of how proficiency testing program data can be used in a Cooperative Extension crops program. Anyone can request the annual report summarizing soil testing accuracy and precision results from the NAPT. You can also ask your laboratory to provide results from their participation in the NAPT. A review of the data will show how your laboratory compares to all other participating laboratories. As a rule of thumb, the NAPT suggests that accuracy data should be no greater than 10% of industry-wide values. Precision values (RSD) for individual laboratories should be no greater than 15% of industry-wide values and are analysis dependent (R. O. Miller, personal communication, April 1, 1998).

Results and Discussion

There is a wide range of variability between and within the results received from the five laboratories conducting the soil analyses for this project. Table 2 shows median RSD values obtained from the NAPT for 1995. This table also shows RSD values from the laboratories participating in this study in 1995. Table 3 shows the same data for 1996. RSD values exceeding the median NAPT values plus 15% are shown in bold type. Any RSD value exceeding the median NAPT value plus 15% indicates a lack of precision.

Table 2.

1995 NAPT RSD Values and Sampled Laboratory RSD Values